Conventional Bricks Research Articles

Manufacturing of Bricks in the Past, in the Present and in the Future: A state of the Art Review

The most basic building material for construction of houses is the conventional brick. The rapid growth in today’s construction industry has obliged the civil engineers in searching for more efficient and durable alternatives far beyond the limitations of the conventional brick production. A number of studies had taken serious steps in manufacturing bricks from several of waste materials. However, the traditional mean of bricks production which has brought hazardous impacts to the context has not yet been changed or replaced by more efficient and sustainable one. This paper aims to compile this state of the art work of manufacturing bricks in the past and the current trend in the bricks industry with respect to the raw materials, ways of manufacturing and the out- comings. Moreover, the hazardous impacts of the conventional brick manufacturing will be wholly covered as well as the attempts of the previous researches in treating the problem properly. This paper is an attempt to fill the gap of the past studies and suggest more sustainable and sophisticated methods of brick manufacturing in the future.

A simplified dynamic model of double layers shape-stabilized phase change materials wallboards

A simplified dynamic building model was proposed and validated in this study. The structure of the new wall system is that of a three-layer sandwich-type panel with outer layers consisting of SSPCM wallboards and middle layer consisting of conventional brick. Each layers of the composite wall have different functions: the external layer connected to outside has a higher PCM melting temperature used in summer and the internal layer connected to indoor with a PCM melting temperature near indoor set point used in winter. The middle layer is brick for insulation. Few studies have involved simplified dynamic models of building structures integrated with double layers SSPCMs. The simplified dynamic model represents the brick layer by three resistances and two capacitances (3R2C) and the SSPCM layer by four resistances and two capacitances (4R2C) while the key issue is the parameters identification of the model. The parameters of the simplified model are identified using genetic algorithm (GA) on the basis of the basic physical properties of the brick and SSPCM layer. Validation results show that the simplified dynamic model can represent light weight walls and median weight walls integrated with double layers SSPCMs with good accuracy.

Utilization of textile effluent wastewater treatment plant sludge as brick material

In the present work, the feasibility of using sludge generated in wastewater treatment plants of textile industry as a partial replacement for clay in the conventional brick manufacturing process is examined. Physico-chemical properties of the sludge and clay were studied. The characteristics of bricks with replacement of sludge (0–50 %) with an increment of 3 % were determined. All the brick samples satisfied the requirements of Indian Standards norms in terms of weight loss on ignition. The bricks with sludge up to 15 % satisfied the prescribed norms for compressive strength and water absorption. Results also showed that the brick weight loss on ignition was mainly attributed to the organic matter content in the sludge being burnt off during the firing process. The characteristics of bricks such as efflorescence, density and weight loss on ignition for bricks with replacement of clayey soil with textile sludge up to 15 % also satisfied the requirements of the Indian Standard. Thus, textile sludge up to 15 % can be effectively added to make brick material.

Properties of bricks made using fly ash, quarry dust and billet scale

This paper reports the findings of an investigation done on bricks made using fly ash (FA), quarry dust (QD), and billet scale (BS) by non conventional method. The procedure for producing the bricks includes mixing the constituents along with cement and water, and then forming the bricks within moulds without applying pressure over them. Unlike the traditional method of brick manufacturing, the new approach neither uses clay or shale nor requires high pressure on mould or high temperature kiln firing having remarkable environmental and ecological gain. Results for mechanical properties and durability were rewarding and promising. The optimum ratio of billet scale and fly ash is found to be 1:1, billet scale and quarry dust is 1:1. It is indicated that the bricks developed in this study can be used as an alternative to conventional bricks.

Development of a Prototype Pots and Potsherds Kilns for Facilitating Ceramic Wares Firing in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria

The purpose of this research is to design and produce a gas and wood fired kilns with waste pots and potsherds that are as efficient as electricity and gas operated kilns which are built using conventional refractory bricks. Waste pots and potsherds were collected from two different pot producing communities, that is, Ojah in Akoko Edo and Imiegba in Etsako Central Local Government Ares of Edo State. To determine the suitability of the sample pots and potsherds collected for the construction of the kilns, the following tests were carried out: shrinkage, porosity and insulating tests. Two kilns were designed and constructed, a gas and wood fired kilns. The firing space and the outer wall of the gas kiln were designed to be circular with one burner port using only potsherd and mortar without using whole pots. The wood kiln was designed to have circular internal firing chamber, two fire boxes and a chimney. The kilns were subjected to series of gloss firing with wood and gas as sources of fuel and the maturing temperatures were recorded. The efficiency of the kilns constructed revealed that they were capable of firing to temperature above 1200°C that was originally planned for it to be attained coupled with uniform heat distribution experienced without any indication of cold spot. These kilns are capable of sustaining the deficiency arising from lack of imported kilns that could be used to accomplish finished ceramic productions as it is being currently encountered in Nigerian tertiary institutions and cottage level industries.

A potential new colour vision assessment tool for young children

Aim: There are many colour vision tests available that detect, classify and grade colour deficiency for adults. Testing colour vision in older children is possible using the same tests but very young children may not yet be confident in identifying pictures and numerals, or may not understand tracing coloured pathways. This pilot study was designed to assess whether Lego1 bricks, which are available in many waiting areas, could be applied to detect colour vision deficiency. Methods: Two groups of 10 male subjects (age 18–32 years) were recruited. One group were colour normal (CVNorm) and 10 were aware of a colour defect (CVDef). Each group completed a standard colour vision assessment consisting of the anomaloscope, Ishihara pseudo-isochromatic plates and D-15 saturated caps. The CVNorm and CVDef groups were required to match Lego1 bricks of the same colour from a tray containing bricks of many colours within a light box using standard illuminant C. Different numbers of the test bricks (red, green, blue, yellow and beige) were randomly selected. Black, light green, white and orange bricks were added as distraction bricks. In a given time limit subjects had to select the bricks of a colour chosen by the assessor, and were scored for incorrectly chosen or missed bricks. The task was repeated under fluorescent and incandescent illumination. Results: CVNorm subjects had zero errors matching the bricks under all three illumination conditions. The CVDef group consisted of 9 dichromats (6 deuteranopes, 3 protanopes) and 1 deuteranomalous trichromat. Some CVDef subjects made one or two errors but in general many completed the task without making any errors. There was no statistical difference between the groups under any of the three illumination conditions. Conclusion: Conventional Lego1 bricks did not detect colour-matching problems in adults previously identified with severe colour deficiency and therefore cannot be recommended as a single test for paediatric colour vision examination.

Finite Element Modeling Of Low Heat Conducting Building Bricks

Heat conduction through conventional and interlocking building bricks with cavities was studied in this work. Heat transfer analysis was carried out using MATLAB ® partial differential equation toolbox. Regular and staggered hole arrangements were studied. Results showed that four staggered holed interlocking bricks were effective in thermal resistance into the bricks and increasing the holes beyond four did not give any thermal resistance advantage. For the conventional bricks staggered holes did not give any thermal resistance advantage but the four-holed bricks were also adjudged to be effective in thermal resistance into the brick surface. Increasing the number of holes beyond four in conventional bricks did give some thermal resistivity advantage but very minimal. Structural strengths of holed bricks were not considered in this study.

Design and application of a new tapered superelement for analysis of revolving geometries

Structures of tapered geometry are customarily used in a variety of applications. The analysis of such structures is usually made through finite element method using traditional beam, shell or brick elements. In this paper, a new tapered superelement is presented that lends itself to modeling revolving geometries under lateral, axial and torsional loads. The presented tapered superelement has 16 nodes. The performance of this element under static and dynamic loading and in rotating condition is examined. It is shown that this element yields accurate results with higher computational efficiency compared to conventional elements. Furthermore, it is verified that a single tapered superelement may be used instead of 32 or more conventional brick or shell elements with the same order of accuracy. Moreover, it is shown that the use of beam elements with tapered geometry may result in inaccurate results. It is concluded that the use of the proposed superelement offers accurate results at lower computational cost for any revolving geometries.

Engineering properties of cemented peat bricks

Housing is a great problem in today’s world and the world future. The most basic building material for infrastructure construction and housing is the usual brick or blocks. Conventional bricks, which are burnt clay, create environmental problems. The purpose for this study was undertaken on the production of peat; siliceous sand, composite cement and lime solid bricks to solve the economic problems of housing and construction building by utilizing local materials. The compressive strength, water absorption and density of these bricks were investigated. It was observed that these bricks had sufficient strength for their use in low cost housing development. Tests were also conducted to study the influence of curing type on the increase in strength and hardening of the bricks with time. Key words: Peat, PFA cement, lime, siliceous sand.

Incorporation of Waelz Slag into Commercial Ceramic Bricks: A Practical Example of Industrial Ecology

The recovery of electric arc furnace (EAF) dust generates large amounts of an industrial byproduct called Waelz slag. This residue, consisting primarily of iron oxide contaminated with other metal oxides (including zinc and lead), is usually disposed of in landfill sites at a high economic and environmental cost. This paper investigates an alternative based on industrial ecology principles, which involves the incorporation of Waelz slag into clay ceramic construction bricks. For the purpose of this work, Waelz slag and raw materials employed in the manufacture of ceramic bricks (natural clays, wood pulp) were characterized. Subsequently, a series of brick specimens were manufactured according to commercial mixes and using industrial equipment and procedures. Similar specimens were also produced replacing 20−30 wt % of the clay with Waelz slag. The resulting products were analyzed for their physical (bulk density, water absorption, open porosity), mechanical (modulus of rupture), and chemical properties (soluble salts content) in order to evaluate compliance with quality standards for construction materials. The environmental consequences of incorporating slag into ceramic products were also investigated at three stages of their life cycle: release of potentially toxic species during their use (NEN 7345), leaching of heavy metals after disposal in landfill sites (EN 12457 1 and 2), and emission of atmospheric pollutants during the firing process. The experimental results demonstrate that incorporation of Waelz slag does not deteriorate the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the resulting products. The leaching of species during its useful lives show compliance with threshold values established according to the Dutch Building Materials Decree (DBMD), and Waelz slag containing bricks fall into the category of nonhazardous waste landfill, just like conventional bricks used at this work. Emissions of CO2 and NOx were reduced versus the emissions of halogenated gases and SO2, which were favored due to the thermal decomposition of S, Cl, and F contained in the waste material.

Procedure for Making a Cement Mixture with Recycled Plastics Applicable to the Manufacture of Building Elements

This review is about the Argentina Patent number AR 047617B1 published on August 12, 2008. Its inventors are Gaggino Rosana, Arguello Ricardo and Berretta Horacio. The topic is a procedure to make new constructive elements (bricks and plates) by using these recycled plastics: - Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), recycled out of discarded soft drink packs. - Polyethylene-terephthalate (PET), recycled out of discarded soft drink bottles. - Several plastics, from the printed films used, like packages of candies (remainder of production plant by faults of inked or thickness). These conveniently grounded plastics were taken as aggregates to be mixed with Normal Portland cement, replacing heavy sand and gravel habitually used in these mixtures. These materials can be used in constructive elements such as bricks and plates for economic houses closures or traditional construction. The developed constructive elements offer high thermal insulation, so they can be used in closures with a smaller thickness than conventional bricks and blocks. Besides, they have a lower specific weight than these traditional constructive elements. Recycling means lowering costs, making part of the environment contaminating waste useful and providing the unemployed and/or unqualified work force with jobs through uncomplicated technologies. Therefore, it has an economical as well as ecological and socially concerned proposal.

Economic benefits of contemporary earth construction in low-cost urban housing – State-of-the-art review

Most cities and towns in developing countries are experiencing a massive influx of population from rural areas. The majority of the rural population migrates to urban areas hoping to find a job and a higher income for their survival. This large influx creates a high demand for urban housing and infrastructure, which the majority of the migrants cannot afford. Moreover, the insufficient use of low-cost traditional building materials and construction techniques in residential construction has resulted in expensive housing stock for the majority of the poor. There is therefore an urgent need to assess alternative building materials and techniques that are both affordable and sustainable. Stabilised earth is an alternative building material that is significantly cheaper than using conventional brick and concrete, and is also environmentally sustainable. Earth has been used as a construction material on every continent and in every age. This article reviews and argues the economic benefits of using earth as a building material, and describes the associated construction techniques for urban housing provision in developing countries. A critical literature review method was adopted in this article to investigate the economic benefit of contemporary earth construction in low-cost urban housing compared to conventional brick and concrete construction.

Experimental Study of PCM Inclusion in Different Building Envelopes

The main objective of this paper is to demonstrate experimentally that it is possible to improve the thermal comfort and reduce the energy consumption of a building without substantial increase in the weight of the construction materials with the inclusion of phase change materials (PCM). PCM are a suitable and promising technology for this application. This paper presents an experimental setup to test PCM with various typical insulation and construction materials in real conditions in Puigverd de Lleida (Lleida, Spain). Nine small house-sized cubicles were constructed: two with concrete, five with conventional brick, and two with alveolar brick. PCM was added in one cubicle of each typology. For each type of construction specific experiments were done. In all cubicles, free-floating temperature experiments were performed to determine the benefits of using PCM. A Trombe wall was added in both concrete cubicles and its influence was investigated. All brick cubicles were equipped with domestic heat pumps as Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system; therefore, the energy consumption was registered, providing real information about the energy savings. Results were very good for the concrete cubicles, since temperature oscillation were reduced by up to 4°C through the use of PCM and also peak temperatures in the PCM cubicle were shifted in later hours. In the brick cubicles, the energy consumption of the HVAC system in summer was reduced by using PCM for set points higher than 20°C. During winter an insulation effect of the PCM is observed, keeping the temperatures of the cubicles warmer, especially during the cold hours of the day.

USE OF STABILISED EARTH IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF LOW COST SUSTAINABLE HOUSING IN AFRICA – AN ENERGY SOLUTION IN THE ERA OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Stabilised earth is an alternative building material which is significantly cheaper than using conventional brick and concrete, and is also environmentally sustainable. Earth has been used as a construction material in every continent and in every age. It is one of the oldest building materials. The use of earth on site as a building material saves manufacturing cost, time, energy, environmental pollution and transportation cost. Most African countries do not have any well-structured and effective program to address the global agenda of sustainability through the use of appropriate construction materials. In order to demonstrate stabilized earth as a sustainable appropriate construction material, the experiences and practices of using earth construction can be studied and harnessed from other subcontinents to demonstrate the dynamism of this material suitable for low cost house construction in the African subcontinent. This paper aims to identify and highlight potentiality of stabilized earth construction in the solution of low cost housing crisis in Africa and justify the use of this appropriate construction material is an energy solution in the era of climate change.

Characteristics of acid resisting bricks made from quarry residues and waste steel slag

The present work focuses on the recycling feasibility of kaolin fine quarry residue (KFQR) combined with granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS) and granite–basalt fine quarry residue (GBFQR) to make a brick resistible to chemical actions, particularly sewage waters, and possesses better properties than the conventional one. The conventional brick is composed of clay, feldspar (precious material) and sand with different percentages. Chemical and mineralogical analyses were carried out using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques, respectively. Also, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as well as energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses was used to study the microstructures of some selected fired specimens. Solid briquettes were made from five suggested batches. These batches contained 50% of KFQR as a constant percentage, while the percentage of GBFS was increased from 10 to 40% on the expense of GBFQR percentage which was decreased from 40 to 10% (by weight). Firing was performed from 1100 °C to 1175 °C at an interval of 25 °C with 5 °C/m (firing rate) and 4 h as the soaking time. In order to evaluate the possibility of making acid resisting brick (ARB), the fired specimens were characterized with respect to the Egyptian standard specification (ESS 41-1986) as well as bulk density, volume changes and firing weight loss. The study shows that the batch S2 containing 50% KFQR, 20% GBFQR and 30% GBFS fired at 1125 °C exhibits the most satisfying ceramic properties that meet the ESS requirements for making acid resistant brick. The study also indicates that the addition of more than 25% of GBFQR is not recommended, as it is significantly deleterious to the ceramic properties.

Manufacture of high heat conductivity resistant clay bricks containing perlite

Different methods have been investigated for achieving heat insulation in the buildings. Manufacturing of high heat conductivity resistant construction materials is an important part of these research efforts. Perlite is an extremely useful material for heat insulation and 70% of the world reserves are located in Turkey. Nearly 65% of the perlite produced today is consumed by the construction industry. Its thermal, lightness, and acoustic insulation properties make perlite an excellent material to be used as lightweight aggregate in brick manufacturing. High heat resistant brick can be produced by adding perlite into the clay in conventional brick manufacturing. In this investigation perlite of Eskişehir region and clay were collated and fired to form high heat conductivity resistant material. Binding materials such as cement, gypsum, lime, bitumen and clay were used for manufacturing perlite brick. Bricks in standard sizes manufactured at different perlite–clay ratios and unit weight, compressive strength, volume reduction and heat conductivity values were obtained. Then the mixture with the best combination of the properties was determined and cost optimization was described. Results were examined according to combination properties, and specialties of perlite bricks were determined at various weights. As a result, the best mixture was determined as the one containing 30% perlite.

Influence of solfonated melamine formaldehyde condensate on the quality of building blocks production by extrusion of cement–clay pastes

The extrusion of cement–clay pastes to manufacture building blocks by cold stabilization of clays by cement is investigated. Based on the pressure and the torque values measured during paste preparation and extrusion, an operative window of concentration of water and sulphonated melamine formaldehyde (SMF) fluidizer suitable to obtain simple and complex building blocks is identified: for pastes with clay/cement ratio 2.6:1 the water content ranges between 24% and 29% w/w for 6% w/w SMF and between 29% and 33% for 0% w/w SMF. Extruded items have been submitted to bending stress resistance tests to evaluate the mechanical properties of clay stabilized by cement and to identify the paste formulations with the highest resistances. To the best a 25% increase in mechanical properties is achieved by applying a curing treatment at 35 °C and 90% humidity for 96 h. However based on the results of tests of frost resistance and resistance to water contact, the clay–cement blocks do not offer so far an alternative to conventional bricks.

How phase change materials affect thermal performance: hollow bricks

The enhancement of rooftop thermal-insulation capability is a key issue in energy conservation in hot and humid climates, where flat roofs receive the greatest solar heat gain. During the process of melting or solidification, a phase change material (PCM) can effectively release or store a great amount of latent heat. As a result, PCM has often been applied for the purpose of environmental control. Experiments analysed the effects on thermal characteristics of adding PCM to conventional hollow thermal-insulation bricks. Two identical test models with untreated and PCM-treated bricks, respectively, were located nearby in field. They were exposed to solar radiation at the same time on typically clear summer days. PCM-treated bricks had a better daytime thermal insulation effect than ordinary hollow bricks. When the maximum outdoor temperature was 35.5°C, the maximum underside temperature of PCM-treated bricks was 31.7°C, which was 4.9°C lower than that of the untreated bricks. In addition, PCM-treated bricks can provide more effective indoor heat preservation at night when temperatures fall outdoors. L'amélioration des performances des isolations thermiques de toiture est un élément clé des économies d'énergie dans les climats chauds et humides, où les toits plats reçoivent la plus grande partie de l'apport par rayonnement solaire. Pendant le processus de fusion ou de solidification, un matériau à changement de phase (PCM) peut effectivement dégager ou stocker une quantité importante de chaleur latente. C'est pour cette raison que les PCM ont souvent été utilisés pour la régulation d'ambiance. On a procédé à des expériences pour analyser les effets sur les caractéristiques thermiques de l'ajout de PCM à des briques creuses classiques d'isolation thermique. Deux modèles identiques de test avec des briques non traitées et des briques traitées avec des PCM ont été disposés à proximité l'un de l'autre sur le terrain. Ils ont été exposés au rayonnement solaire, au même moment, en été, par temps clair. Les briques traitées au PCM ont un meilleur effet d'isolation thermique de jour que les briques creuses ordinaires. Lorsque la température extérieure maximale était de 35,5°C, la température maximale de la face inférieure des briques traitées au PCM était de 31,7°C, soit 4,9°C de moins que la température des briques non traitées. De plus, les briques traitées au PCM peuvent assurer une conservation de la chaleur intérieure plus efficace la nuit lorsque les températures chutent à l'extérieur. Mots clés: technologie alternative, briques, confort, absorption de la chaleur, matériau à changement de phase (PCM), toit, isolation thermique

E-commerce and corporate strategy: an executive perspective

Despite the recent downturn in Internet-based business, the dollar value of electronic commerce (EC) transactions is increasing at an astounding rate. In consumer-to-business applications, the amount of money spent by online shoppers is nearly doubling every year and is expected to approach US$ 100 billion by 2004 while business-to-business sales is expected to reach US$ 1.3 trillion by 2003. These opportunities, powered by the evolving computing and communication technologies, enable companies to gain tremendous operational efficiencies, personalization, and information based products and services. More and more conventional brick and mortar firms see e-commerce initiatives as offering strategic opportunities to transcend their normal operations. This study proposes that e-commerce initiatives are important strategic initiatives and that firms with a stronger EC market orientation will be more successful. Content analysis of CEO’s letter to shareholders of 145 Fortune 500 firms was conducted to evaluate the importance of EC and strategic orientation. The results provide support to the study’s propositions and indicate that EC must be pursued carefully as a strategic initiative rather than as an appendage to an existing organization.

A perspective study on fly ash–lime–gypsum bricks and hollow blocks for low cost housing development

Housing is a great problem in today's world. The most basic building material for construction of houses is the usual burnt clay brick. A significant quantity of fuel is utilized in making these bricks. Also, continuous removal of topsoil, in producing conventional bricks, creates environmental problems. A feasibility study was undertaken on the production of fly ash–lime–gypsum (FaL-G) bricks and hollow blocks to solve the problems of housing shortage and at the same time to build houses economically by utilizing industrial wastes. The compressive strength, water absorption, density and durability of these bricks and hollow blocks are investigated. It is observed that these bricks and hollow blocks have sufficient strength for their use in low cost housing development. Tests were also conducted to study the influence of type of curing on the increase in strength and hardening of the bricks and blocks with time. It was observed that the hot water curing leads to a greater degree of hardening and higher strength, earlier compared to ordinary water curing.