Controlled Traffic Farming Systems Research Articles

Effects of Tractor and Soil Parameters on the Depth of the Permanent Traffic Lanes in Controlled Traffic Farming Systems

One of the basic requirements for controlled traffic farming (CTF) is the precise motion of all agricultural equipment on permanent traffic lanes (PTL). Tractors of machine-tractor units are then equipped with a GNSS (global navigation satellite) RTK (real-time kinematic) system, even though in many parts of the world, and Europe as well, satellite navigation is not yet used. In this case, for implementation of the CTF system, it needs to lay such PTL tracks that would be sufficiently visible, especially when using the CTF system in multi-year agricultural crop cultivation. The PTL track depth is influenced by both tractor and soil parameters and, in this paper, this influence is studied considering the dimensionless π-terms of the similarity theory. To obtain a greater depth of PTL tracks (h), the soil cone index must be low. The low density of the soil is important, even if its effect on the parameter h is less than that of the soil cone index. A greater depth of PTL tracks is also obtained by increasing the inflation pressure in the tractor tires. Ballasted wheels are the least effective for increasing the value of the parameter h.

Long-Term Monitoring of Different Field Traffic Management Practices in Cereals Production with Support of Satellite Images and Yield Data in Context of Climate Change

Cereals in Europe are mainly grown with intensive management. This often leads to the deterioration of the physical properties of the soil, especially increasing bulk density due to heavy machinery traffic, which causes excessive soil compaction. Controlled traffic farming (CTF) technology has the potential to address these issues, as it should be advantageous technology for growing cereals during climate change. The aim of this study was to compare the yield potential of CTF and standardly used random traffic farming (RTF) technology using yield maps obtained from combine harvester and satellite imagery as a remote sensing method. The experiment was performed on a 16-hectare experimental field with a CTF system established in 2009 (with conversion from a conventional (ploughing) to conservation tillage system). Yield was compared in years when small cereals were grown, a total of 7 years within a 13-year period (2009–2021). The results show that CTF technology was advantageous in dry years. Cereals grown in the years 2016, 2017 and 2019 had significantly higher yields under CTF technology. On the contrary, in years with higher precipitation, RTF technology had slightly better results—up to 4%. This confirms higher productivity when using CTF technology in times of climate change.

Controlled traffic farming effects on productivity of grain sorghum, rainfall and fertiliser nitrogen use efficiency

Controlled traffic farming (CTF) is a mechanisation system in which all machinery has the same (or modular) working and track width so that field traffic can be confined to the least possible area of permanent traffic lanes. CTF enables productivity of non-compacted crop beds to be optimised for given energy, fertiliser and water (rainfall) inputs. This study investigated the agronomic response and economic return of grain sorghum grown in compacted and non-compacted soils to represent the conditions of non-CTF and CTF systems, respectively. Yield-to-nitrogen (N) responses were derived following application of urea, 3,4-dimethyl pyrazole phosphate-treated urea (DMPP), and urea ammonium nitrate (UAN, 32% N) at rates between 0 and 300 kg ha −1 N. Selected soil properties were measured to guide parametrisation of the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM), which was used to assess long-term (55 years) effects of CTF and non-CTF soil conditions on crop productivity, rainfall use efficiency (RUE) and develop rainfall-runoff relationships. Grain yield and yield components (harvest Index, grain thousand-grain weight, number of grains) were significantly higher in CTF compared with non-CTF. On average, the most economic N rates, and corresponding grain yields, were 144 and 3428 kg ha −1 , and 100 and 1796 kg ha −1 for CTF and non-CTF, respectively. When N inputs were optimised, agronomic efficiency calculations showed 18% increase in CTF compared with non-CTF. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) was 1.75 times higher in CTF than in non-CTF. Rainfall-use efficiency was about 65% higher in CTF, which concurrently reduced the amount of runoff compared with non-CTF. Average rainfall season (330–450 mm in-crop) grain yield was 30% lower in non-CTF compared with CTF. For subtropical conditions of Australia, long-term APSIM simulations showed that increased productivity and inter-season yield stability can increase gross margin of grain sorghum by AUD74 ha −1 or greater depending on the adopted tillage system and in-crop rainfall. In non-CTF systems, improvements in NUE and RUE are constrained by soil compaction. Enhanced efficiency fertilisers, such as DMPP-treated urea, cannot compensate for other stresses caused by soil compaction and therefore cannot achieve the same NUE and RUE as the CTF system. Adoption of CTF delivers improved resource-use efficiency and profitability in rainfall-limited environments. Long-term (1960–2015) simulation of grain yield (A) and runoff (D) as a function of in-crop rainfall. Modelled data for grain sorghum-fallow cropping on a Red Ferrosol in Toowoomba (Queensland, Australia) in controlled (CTF) and non-controlled traffic farming (non-CTF) systems, respectively. Continuous lines show the best fit to predicted data. Dotted vertical lines show the 30th (left) and 70th (right) percentiles rainfall, respectively. • Controlled traffic farming (CTF) increased long-term grain yields by 30% in average-rainfall seasons. • Fertiliser nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) was 1.75 times higher in CTF compared with non-CTF. • Rainfall use efficiency (RUE) was 65% higher in CTF compared with non-CTF, which significantly reduced runoff. • Avoidance of (random) field traffic is a pre-requisite for jointly improving fertiliser NUE and RUE. • In non-CTF, improvements in NUE and RUE are constrained by compaction. • Enhanced efficiency fertilisers cannot compensate for other stresses caused by compaction.

Impact of cotton picker traffic on vertosol soil and yield in individual rows

This study investigated the impact of soil compaction owing to cotton picker traffic, and the impact of this compaction on cotton yield on a row-by-row basis across the field under both random traffic farming (RTF) and controlled traffic farming (CTF) systems. Measurements of soil water content, dry bulk density and soil penetration resistance were taken and compared with a depth of 80 cm both before and after traffic. It was found that the traffic of JD7760 round-bale cotton picker caused significant compaction in cotton rows and furrows located between, adjacent to, and in wheel tracks under both RTF and CTF systems, particularly for the top 30-cm depth. Because of the soil compaction, the yield was more significantly reduced (7~10% by the machine-pick method) in the rows between the dual-wheel than in those adjacent to the wheel track. Adopting CTF reduces the area of soil compaction and ensures the maintenance of soil characteristics of the cultivated portions of the farm, hence enhancing cotton yield.

Experimental study of the implement-and-tractor aggregate used for laying tracks of permanent traffic lanes inside controlled traffic farming systems

Traffic-induced soil compaction is a serious drawback of modern agriculture. However, controlled traffic farming (CTF) systems, which have been adopted worldwide, are useful strategies of lessening this problem. In CTF systems, the crop zone is clearly separated from the permanent traffic lanes (PTL), which are used exclusively for the movement of the machine-and-tractor aggregates. The CTF systems are implemented both with and without the use of the GPS systems. When navigation-aid is not used, the first positioning of the PTL tracks is an essential operation, in which the aggregate intended for this task must perform a sufficiently straight movement. This paper reports the assessments concerning the PTL tracks laid by an experimental aggregate, which consisted of a four-wheel drive tractor and a tillage implement operating in the “push” mode. This aggregate formed tracks with a sufficiently small dispersion (10.30 cm2) and a fairly low (not more than 0.09 Hz) frequency of their fluctuations in a horizontal plane. Furthermore, during the tests, a rather close positive correlation between the bearing angle φ of the tractor and the turning angle α of its driven wheels was registered and the maximum value of the related correlation function was 0.9. Moreover, the phase (time) shift between the disturbing torque and the response to it by the tractor operator did not exceed 0.75 s. The use of the proposed aggregate allowed laying tracks with a depth of 21.2 ± 0.3 cm and vibrations in a longitudinal vertical plane, whose dispersion was not more than 2 cm2 and was concentrated in a fairly narrow frequency range from 0 to 1.78 Hz.

Advantages of the one-wheeled tramline for multiple machinery widths method on sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) responses in the Argentinean Flat Pampas

The “one-wheeled tramline” for multiple machinery widths (OWTL) method, which implies confining compaction to only one common permanent traffic lane (PTL) without changing wheel tracks of the machinery, has been proposed as first step to adopt the Controlled Traffic Farming system. The objective of this study was to evaluate how far the stress distribution, caused by repeated wheeling, affects maize and sunflower response in Argiudolls. The OWTL method was applied in two experimental sites, one cropped with maize (Aurelia site) and the other one with sunflower (Videla site). At each site, 9 plots were defined and one common PTL was established within each plot. Three compaction treatments were assigned to plots in a randomized complete block design with 3 replicates. The 3 compaction treatments were: T0: control, PTL with initial soil compaction defined for one pass of the planter equipment; T1: PTL compacted until the soil reached 2 MPa; T2: PTL compacted until the soil reached 4 MPa. Thereafter, the machinery traffic was restricted to the PTL. Fixed sampling positions were established in the PTL (from the centre to the outer edge) and in the permanent crop bed (PCB). After 18 months from the experiment begining, relative soil compaction (RSC) at the depth interval 0-100 and 100-200 mm, maize and sunflower yield, and sunflower root biomass (RB) were measured. Critical bulk density was 1.58 ± 0.03 Mg m-3 and 1.62 ± 0.05 at Aurelia and Videla sites. Significant differences of RSC between sampling positions were observed at both sites, whereas significant differences between compaction treatments were observed at Videla site. The higher RSC values were observed at the depth interval 100-200 mm in the PTL. The lower yields were observed in the centre of the PTL in T2. Contrasting the yield of maize and sunflower obtained in the PTL of T0 vs the average of T1 and T2, differences of 2751 and 848 kg ha-1 were observed. No yield differences were found for the same contrast in the PCB. Sunflower RB was reduced by 56% in the PTL, without differences between compaction treatments. The higher RB was found at the depth interval 0-100 mm (86% and 79% in the PTL and PCB, respectively). These results showed that the horizontal transmission of soil compaction caused by the OWTL depends on the RSC reached in the PTL. Crops yield and root growth were differently affected by the compaction treatments and the effect varied between sampling positions.

A comparative study of conventional and controlled traffic in irrigated cotton: I. Heavy machinery impact on the soil resource

To increase in-field efficiency of mechanical operations, machines have increased in size and capacity, which has resulted in cotton pickers approaching 40Mg in mass. Such mass presents concern for soil compaction and subsequent crop performance. Controlled traffic farming (CTF) is a useful means to reduce machine impact, but is not highly adopted globally. This investigation was designed to compare a standard cotton picker side-by-side to a CTF converted cotton picker in terms of soil resource impact. A replicated, side-by-side, commercial scale experiment was instigated with a 1.5m row-spacing CTF system compared against a 1.0m row-spacing standard cotton system. Soil moisture, bulk density, and strength were measured immediately prior and post harvest, along with crop yield, for two cotton seasons and one wheat season. In depth cotton quality, water use efficiency and economic analysis are undertaken in a companion paper. Both machines were shown to induce comparable soil compaction, effects detectable to 0.8m soil depth, with the main difference being a 17% reduction in furrow traffic for the CTF system. The inner and outer dual wheel of the standard picking system had similar impact, effectively creating a horizontal compaction pan at ≈0.35–0.40m depth, perpendicular to the direction of machine travel. Bio-ripping of this compaction pan by wheat was demonstrated as ineffectual. The CTF system grew less cotton plants per hectare, but outperformed the standard system. Bio-ripping more effectively accessed water in the CTF system and out yielded the conventional system by ≈60%.

Field Evaluation of Controlled Traffic Farming in Central Europe Using Commercially Available Machinery

Abstract. The progressive increase in the size and weight of farm machinery causes concerns due to the increased risk of soil compaction that arises from non-organized vehicle traffic. Controlled traffic farming (CTF) offers an effective means to manage compaction by confining all load-bearing wheels to the least possible area of permanent traffic lanes. Although CTF is relatively well-established in Australia and in some countries in Northern Europe, its benefits and suitability for Central European conditions have not been demonstrated. A long-term experimental site was established in 2010 in Nitra, Slovakia, using a 6 m “OutTrac-CTF” system with shallow non-inversion tillage practices. The 16 ha experimental field of loam soil is representative of land used for arable cropping in Central Europe. Four traffic intensities (non-trafficked, one traffic event per year with a single pass, multiple passes with permanent traffic lanes, and random traffic) were evaluated using two traffic systems: controlled (CTF) and non-controlled traffic farming (referred to as random traffic farming or RTF). This article reports the findings derived from the first four years of the project and focuses on the effects of traffic systems on yields observed in cereal crops (winter wheat, spring barley, and maize) grown at the site in a rotation cycle. Significant differences (p < 0.1) in yield are reported due to the heterogeneity of the field and the seasonal effect of weather. The results of this investigation suggest that CTF systems have potential to increase production sustainably in arable farming systems in Central Europe. Well-designed CTF systems using commercially available machinery allow for reductions in the area affected by traffic of up to 50% compared with random, non-organized traffic systems. Results also show that in years when soil moisture was not limiting, the yield penalty from a single (annual) machine pass was relatively small (~5%). However, in dry years, compaction caused by multiple machinery passes may lead to yield losses of up to 33%. When considering the ratio of non-trafficked to trafficked area within the different CTF systems evaluated in this study, yield improvements of up to 0.5 t ha-1 for cereals are possible when converting from RTF to CTF. Given the assumptions made in the analyses, such yield increases translate into increased revenues of up to 117 USD ha-1 (1 Euro= 1.1 USD). For Central European farming systems, the main benefit of CTF appears to be improved efficiency and enhanced agronomic stability, especially in dry seasons, where the significant yield penalty from machinery passes is likely. Keywords: Crop performance, Economic return, Field efficiency, Soil compaction, Traffic systems, Yield penalty.

Sheep grazing on crop residues do not reduce crop yields in no-till, controlled traffic farming systems in an equi-seasonal rainfall environment

In southern Australia, the majority of farms combine a sheep enterprise with a cropping enterprise to form a mixed farming business. Crops are grown in sequence with pastures, and sheep graze vegetative juvenile crops and crop stubble residues after harvest. Recently, growers practicing no-till, controlled traffic cropping became concerned that grazing livestock would damage soil and reduce soil water capture, crop yield and profitability. Sheep grazing on stubbles remove residue cover and compact surface soil, but there is little published research on potential impacts on subsequent crop performance.Two experiments were conducted in high (Temora) and low (Condobolin) rainfall environments from 2009 to 2013 to determine whether sheep grazing crops during the vegetative phase and/or stubbles after harvest damaged soil, reduced soil water capture and storage or affected the performance of subsequent crops. Sheep grazing on stubbles did not reduce crop yields provided summer weeds were controlled with herbicides and at least 70% stubble cover (2–3t/ha cereal stubble) was maintained on the soil surface. Sheep grazing on stubble increased soil strength and bulk density and reduced water infiltration rates, but rarely to levels that were detrimental to soil water capture, crop growth or grain yield. Where reduced infiltration rates did reduce soil water capture, it was due to removal of cover by grazing rather than compaction.Grazing of vegetative crops in winter when soils were generally wet further increased soil strength compared to grazing stubbles alone, but not to an extent that was detrimental to plant growth. Yield effects from grazing crops in winter were not due to soil physical effects, but to differences in plant growth in response to defoliation.Grazing of both stubbles and crops increased the availability of soil mineral N to subsequent crops which increased grain yield and protein in some seasons.The results from these experiments provide strong evidence that livestock can be retained within modern conservation cropping systems without compromising crop performance, and continue to provide the production and business risk benefits for which they have been historically valued.

Effect of crop residues on CO<sub>2</sub> flux in the CTF system during soil tillage by a disc harrow Lemken Rubin 9

Carbon dioxide is one of the most important greenhouse gases. Agriculture, especially soil tillage, contributes to CO<sub>2</sub> emissions significantly. The aim of the paper was the comparison of the amounts of carbon dioxide emissions released from the soil into the atmosphere depending on the controlled traffic farming (CTF) and crop residues. Three variants of the experiment were realised: before the soil tillage, immediately after the soil tillage, and seven days after the soil tillage. The soil tillage was carried out after the harvest of winter wheat by disc harrow Lemken Rubin 9 with a tractor John Deere 8230 on the loamy soil. The monitoring points were selected in parts of the field with and without the crop residues and in trafficked and non-trafficked areas. The CTF system affects CO<sub>2</sub> flux, the amounts of emissions from the non-trafficked areas being higher than those from the trafficked areas. The crop residues left on the field cause a decrease of CO<sub>2</sub> flux. The incorporation of crop residues causes an increase of CO<sub>2</sub> flux.

An environmental life cycle assessment of controlled traffic farming

Controlled Traffic Farming (CTF) is an in-field traffic management strategy to minimise soil compaction. The aim of this study was to perform a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based on a modelling approach to estimate environmental impacts of producing wheat in Denmark using CTF compared to the conventional practice of Random Traffic Farming (RTF). Compared to the RTF system, CTF reduced environmental impacts on a grain-weight basis in all impact categories analysed: aquatic eutrophication (8–16%), human toxicity (3–15%), terrestrial eutrophication (29%), climate change (50%), acidification (33%), eco-toxicity (11–138%), and land use (7%). Reductions in environmental impacts in the CTF system analysed are caused mainly by higher grain yields, less soil compaction, which decreases P-compound runoff and in-field soil N2O and NH3 emissions, and the use of auto-guidance, which induces less overlap during application of fertilisers and pesticides. The results, moreover, show that these environmental improvements are potentially relevant at a global scale.

Socioeconomic impact of widespread adoption of precision farming and controlled traffic systems in Denmark

In this study we assess the economic profitability of implementing various precision farming (PF) technologies and controlled traffic farming (CTF) on 4 main crops in Denmark. The study provides insight into technological requirements, and identifies related costs and benefits to farmers and the Danish society as a whole. At the farm level, the findings from the study indicate that an implementation of CTF systems may have a significant impact on fuel savings due to a reduced overlap with auto guidance systems and easier movement with tractors and tools in the field. The PF site-specific weed management approach may facilitate large savings in the use of herbicides. At the national level, the results clearly show that the benefits to the Danish economy of adopting this new technology is positive with increased income to farmers and a reduction in fuel consumption and pesticides/herbicides use. The obtained results reflect the long term economic effect of implementing new production methods in Denmark where soil fertility increases over time due to reduced traffic increasing yields. Over all, the Danish GDP is estimated to increase by 34 million € due to the implementation of PF and CTF on larger farms in Denmark. The results also clearly show that adoption of PF and CTF farming systems will benefit the environment. The agricultural sectors input of environmental harmful inputs are reduced in all scenarios presented in this paper. The adoption of PF and CTF systems should thus be of interest to politicians since it clearly facilitates aims of environmental policies currently under implementation by the Danish government.

Procedures of soil farming allowing reduction of compaction

Evaluation of new technologies using guidance systems is very important and can help producers with choosing the right equipment for their applications. Without using satellite navigation during field operations, there is a tendency for passes to overlap. That results in waste of fuel and pesticides, longer working times and also environmental damage. When utilising satellite guidance for field operations, there is a close connection with controlled traffic farming (CTF) as well. CTF is currently a quite quickly developing farming system based on fixed layout of machinery passes across a field. Tracks precisely set out for a machine’s tyres in the field could be a tool for minimising soil compaction risk which is another threat to the environment. The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the accuracy of currently available guidance systems for agricultural machines. Real pass-to-pass errors (omissions and overlaps) in a field were measured. Consequently, comparison between observed guidance systems was made regarding final working accuracy. Further, intensity of machinery passes, percentage of wheeled area and repeated passes in fields were monitored. These measurements were made in fields under real operating conditions using a conventional tillage system with ploughing and also a conservation tillage system, both systems with randomly organized traffic. Finally, the same parameters were monitored in fields where fixed machinery tracks were used for all operations and passes but only under a conservation tillage system. Pass-to-pass accuracy was measured for the evaluation of different guidance systems. Size of missed areas or overlaps was evaluated statistically. Concerning intensity of machinery passes and total field area affected by machinery passes, the following facts were found out. The experiments with randomized traffic showed a significant difference of the parameters mentioned above between a conventional tillage system with ploughing and a conservation tillage system. Wheeled area was 86 and 64%, respectively which proves benefits of conservation tillage. The experiments with a fixed track system showed that the total run-over area by machinery tyres decreased even more (up to 31%) in comparison to randomized traffic in a field (only fields under conservation tillage system were monitored and evaluated). The following statements based on our results can be made. The navigation and therefore possibility for better accuracy of machinery passes in fields together with permanent machinery tracks utilization could help with soil condition improvement and also energy savings which would result from that. The CTF system will help with further development of a system for soil compaction protection which is currently a real necessity.

Tramline establishment in controlled traffic farming based on operational machinery cost

This paper presents a targeted approach for the estimation of the operational machinery costs on an annual basis in controlled traffic farming (CTF) systems. The approach combines four sub-models based on existing algorithmic approaches, to evaluate the consequences in terms of machinery performance of different driving directions when establishing tramlines in a CTF system. The first two sub-models refer to the geometrical attributes (overlapped areas, effective and turning travelled distances, coordinates of the tramlines, headland passes, etc.) of the field–machinery combination, while the other two models are related to the execution of material handling operations (i.e., fertilising and harvesting) under the restrictions imposed by the CTF. A case study is presented regarding two fields for a reduced tillage machinery system. Based on the results, it was shown that in the CTF the rule that the driving direction parallel to the longest field edge is the optimal one does not apply. Specifically, in the case of the second field, there is a cost decrease of 9% in terms of annual operational cost when the direction of the tramlines is changed from parallel to the longest edge of the field to parallel to the shortest one. This divergence from the conventional rule is caused by the traffic restrictions imposed by the CTF system and the subsequent differences in the resulting overlapped areas in spraying and seeding, unloading times in harvesting, in-field transport in fertilising, and headland turnings, for each specific driving direction.

Effect of controlled traffic on field efficiency

Two machinery operations in two different fields were monitored and analysed. The operations involved slurry applications carried out by machinery systems involving an application unit (AU) and a refilling unit (RU). The application systems consisted of an un-controlled traffic farming (UCTF) system and the controlled traffic farming (CTF) system. The results of the experimental operation were used to estimate the operational parameters of the modelled field efficiency. In the one case, the operation was simulated following the CTF system while in the other case it followed the UCTF system. The results show that the implementation of the CTF system rather than the UCTF system significantly increases the in-field transport distance travelled by the AU. The reduction in-field efficiency, in terms of transport distance, ranged from 4.68% to 7.41%. In addition to the analysis of the observed and simulated field traffic patterns, the value of the applied simulation model as a tactical and operational planning tool was also demonstrated. It was possible to evaluate different user configurations in terms of work pattern, machine dimension, and location of the RU in the field and to estimate the effect on the field efficiency.

Modelling of material handling operations using controlled traffic

Controlled-traffic farming (CTF) is a management system that can eliminate soil compaction by wheels within the cropped area. According to the principles of CTF, permanent parallel wheel tracks are created within the field area. The benefits of CTF, in terms of productivity and sustainability, have been the subject of intensive research for a number of decades. This has led to the establishment of CTF in various regions around the world. CTF also has drawbacks that include the need to purchase specialised machinery, the loss of cropped area due to dedicated wheel tracks and the cost of creating and maintaining permanent traffic lanes within the fields. Furthermore, field efficiency is affected by CTF due to significant increases in idle time of in-field transport and the way the fields are traversed in material handling operations. During fertilisation, when tramline length and the driving distance needed to apply one tanker load of fertiliser are not coordinated, CTF does not allow for random turns and requires the tanker to drive empty along the traffic path. The inherent characteristics of the CTF system, as well as the fact that cooperatively owned machines are used to carry out the operations, makes existing models inadequate for evaluating field efficiency. In this paper, the development of a discrete-event model for the prediction of travelled distances of a machine operating in material handling operations using the concept of CTF is presented. The model is based on the mathematical formulation of the discrete events regarding the motion of the machine when performing the fieldwork pattern. To evaluate the model two slurry application experiments were designed. The experiments involved registering the position and monitoring the application status of the slurry applicator. Validation showed that the model could adequately predict the motion pattern of machinery operating in CTF. Prediction errors of total distance travelled, were 0.24% and 1.41% for the 2 experimental setups. The current model structure captures the interrelationships between the mutual influencing parameters of motion sequence and configurations of the CTF layout. This model has the potential to be used for autonomous vehicles.