Control-value Theory Research Articles

Task-specific emotions in L2 writing: A control-value theory approach from a positive psychology perspective

This study investigates task-specific emotions, examining how they arise and impact performance in a second language writing task through the lens of control-value theory and a positive psychology (PP) perspective. Participants were 206 secondary English-as-a-foreign-language learners from rural China. They completed an English argumentative writing task and filled out scales measuring task-specific appraisals (control, intrinsic value, and extrinsic value) as well as task-specific emotions (enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom). Correlation analyses showed consistently significant intercorrelations between control-value appraisals, task emotions, and task performance. Structural equation modeling revealed that: (1) task performance was directly predicted by extrinsic value appraisal and indirectly predicted by control appraisal, with anxiety being a mediator; (2) enjoyment was positively predicted by both control appraisal and intrinsic value appraisal; and (3) boredom was not predicted by any of the appraisals. The findings highlight the emotional dimension of the task and provide implications for task design, implementation, and assessment. The article concludes by advocating for a control-value theory approach to task-specific emotions from a PP perspective.

Investigating English Majors’ Online Learning Anxiety and Its Influencing Factors

Anxiety in second language acquisition refers to the tension or unease that students experience while learning a foreign language. Despite extensive research on anxiety in second language acquisition, little has been done to explore online learning anxiety. This study aimed to examine Chinese English majors’ anxiety and its influencing factors in online learning from the control-value theory perspective. Through a utilization of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, this study found: (1) Chinese English majors exhibited a moderate level of online learning anxiety, with gender and academic year level exerting no significant influence on anxiety levels; (2) Multiple influencing factors, involving the individual learners, their teachers and peers as well as the learning environment, contributed to Chinese English majors’ online learning anxiety. It is suggested that teachers prioritize increasing communication and interaction with students in online teaching to alleviate the anxiety, boost the learning effect and promote the physical and mental well-being of the students.

Mediation of enjoyment and burnout in the link between teacher-student relationships and foreign language achievement and its gender differences

ABSTRACT The significance of teacher-student relationships in foreign language (FL) learning has been well-established. However, the intricacies of how teacher-student relationships indirectly influence FL achievement, particularly through the lens of emotional experience, remain to be fully understood. Grounded in attachment theory and control value theory, this study dissected the mediating roles of enjoyment and burnout in the link between teacher-student relationships and FL achievement, and further explored the gender differences in these mediation effects. The survey encompassed 4,900 English learners from Hainan Province, China. Student-reported scales for enjoyment and burnout in English learning were utilized, complemented by an English achievement test. Structural equation modeling (SEM) elucidated that enjoyment and burnout served as partial mediators in the link between teacher-student relationships and English achievement. Furthermore, multi-group SEM revealed gender-specific variations in these mediation effects, with stronger mediation observed in boys than girls. This study offers theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical insights for FL teaching and learning.

'Dancing with emotions': An Interpretive Descriptive study of facilitators recognition and response to students' emotions during simulation.

Immersive simulations can evoke a range of emotions in students. However, little is known about how facilitators recognise and respond to students' emotions during simulations. This study aims to understand how simulation facilitators perceive and respond to students' emotions during simulation-in order to optimise learning. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 10 simulation facilitators who had varying experiences in simulation-based practice. We explored their experiences of students' emotions in simulations and reactions to these perceived emotional states. Applying an Interpretive Descriptive methodology, drawing upon control-value theory, we iteratively and reflexively developed themes to address our research question. Based on a contrasting analysis, we used the concept of 'crafted stories' to represent our findings. We identified three recurring issues and crafted these into stories: (1) facilitators that recognise emotions and adjust the complexity of the simulation in order to dampen intense negative emotions and 'preserve learning'; (2) those that recognise mainly negative emotions and argue that it is better to let them feel the 'heat' in order to prepare them for the realities of clinical practice; (3) those that recognise both negative and positive emotions but let the simulation run as planned for all learners and attend to emotional responses during debriefing. Simulation facilitators become aware of students' emotional responses through a range of cues. While some facilitators continually move and react to students' emotions, others intentionally hold back from attempting to alter students' emotional responses. Facilitators' beliefs about how to optimise learning mediate how they react to students' emotional states. Beliefs about learning are predominantly shaped by their experiences in both teaching and real-world clinical practice. By understanding the delicate balancing act of students' emotional states and altering the complexity of a simulation, we have the opportunity to inform facilitator training in order to enhance learning.

Academic buoyancy, hope, and behavioral engagement in learning English as a foreign language: A mediation model

With the enhancement of positive psychology movement in educational field, the contributive role of academic buoyancy on academic and well-being outcomes has been validated. However, few studies have been conducted to explore the mediation mechanisms between academic buoyancy and engagement, especially in the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). Inspired by the control-value theory (CVT), this study set out to examine how EFL buoyancy related to behavioral engagement, using a latent structural equation modelling (SEM). Gender, age, and family resources are controlled while validating the hypothesized model of “academic buoyancy—hope—behavioral engagement”. The sample comprised 542 students (47.7% female) in their second year of secondary education who responded to survey items in a cross-sectional design. Our findings reveal that academic buoyancy was positively correlated with hope, and behavioral engagement in the EFL settings. Also, it was found that the emotional experience of hope fully mediated the relationships between academic buoyancy and behavioral engagement. The hypothesized model accounts for 79.0% of the variance in EFL hope and 54.5% of the variance in behavioral engagement. These findings shed light on the influence mechanism of academic buoyancy on behavioral engagement in learning English as a foreign language. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Optional Exam Retakes Reduce Anxiety but may Exacerbate Score Disparities Between Students with Different Social Identities.

Use of high-stakes exams in a course has been associated with gender, racial, and socioeconomic inequities. We investigated whether offering students the opportunity to retake an exam makes high-stakes exams more equitable. Following the control value theory of achievement emotions, we hypothesized that exam retakes would increase students' perceived control over their performance and decrease the value of a single exam attempt, thereby maximizing exam performance. We collected data on exam scores and experiences with retakes from three large introductory biology courses and assessed the effect of optional exam retakes on gender, racial/ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in exam scores. We found that Black/African American students and those who worked more than 20 h a week were less likely to retake exams. While exam retakes significantly improved student scores, they slightly increased racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in scores partly because of these differences in participation rates. Most students reported that retake opportunities reduced their anxiety on the initial exam attempt. Together our results suggest that optional exam retakes could be a useful tool to improve student performance and reduce anxiety associated with high-stakes exams. However, barriers to participation must be examined and reduced for retakes to reduce disparities in scores.

“I feel AI is neither too good nor too bad”: Unveiling Chinese EFL teachers’ perceived emotions in generative AI-Mediated L2 classes

Despite the recent growth in the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into second/foreign language (L2) education, its emotional side has been ignored, to date. In order to address this gap, the present qualitative study aimed to explore the typology of emotions that Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers had experienced in their AI-based L2 classes. Drawing on the technology acceptance model (TAM) and control value theory (CVT), a sample of 50 EFL teachers were interviewed individually. The results of thematic analysis showed that Chinese EFL teachers, in this study, had experienced a variety of positive and negative emotions due to AI technologies. The most frequently experienced positive emotions were ‘enjoyment’, ‘excitement’, ‘motivation’, and ‘satisfaction’. Conversely, the participants had most repeatedly experienced negative emotions of ‘anxiety’, ‘stress’, ‘worry’, and ‘frustration’ in their AI-based classes. The findings are discussed in light of prior research and suggestions and implications are presented to EFL teachers and educators.

The Impact of Artificial Intelligence Virtual Oral Tutoring APPs on Chinese Youth’s Anxiety in Oral English learning——Interview Research Based on Users of Artificial Intelligence Speaking Tutoring APPs

Foreign language learning anxiety is a long-standing topic that people use to guide foreign language teaching and the setting of foreign language education scenarios by studying the anxiety emotions that exist in foreign language learning. However, in today’s era of artificial intelligence (AI), with the release of ChatGPT, large language model AI technology is widely used. In such a new context, various AI virtual foreign language oral coaches have emerged. Due to the short development time of the large language model technology, the foreign language training model built on this technology is still in the initial stage of development, and the research on this field is very limited. The research on the improvement of foreign language learning emotions brought by GAI is even rarer. The foreign language learning method provided by the AI coach. What help does it have for foreign language learning? Does it alleviate foreign language learning anxiety? It has become a blank in foreign language learning emotion research. This study used semi-structured interviews with 10 Chinese young people between the ages of 20 and 40. Using the method of thematic analysis, the data of this interview were recorded and analyzed, and the conclusions reached were explained from the control value theory, and it was found that AI robots can alleviate many aspects of anxiety in foreign language oral learning, such as: communicative anxiety, situational anxiety, oral anxiety, hearing anxiety, and cognitive anxiety. It is very friendly to socially phobic people, providing emotional companionship and cognitive support for students who are lonely and helpless in foreign language oral communication, although the effect of foreign language improvement is different for different students, but it has an obvious effect on alleviating anxiety when learning foreign languages, and it is unexpectedly found that the AI robot foreign language coach also has the role of emotional companionship for learners, in addition to helping to alleviate anxiety, it can also provide positive emotional value through care, companionship, communication, etc. The findings of this paper are helpful to understand the help of AI technology on foreign language learning emotions, and to provide support for subsequent research on AI accompanying foreign language learning.

Secondary school students' appraisal profiles and their relations with academic emotions in mathematics

This study adopted a person-centered method to investigate the latent profiles of students' cognitive appraisals based on control-value theory, providing a picture of their academic emotional landscape. Students' appraisal profiles regarding academic emotions were also compared. The data were collected from 1762 students (50.7 % male; Mage = 13.88, SD = 0.84) in 68 mathematics classrooms across 11 secondary schools in Jiangsu, China. Latent profile analysis identified four patterns based on academic control and value: extrinsic value orientation (4.9 %) and low (13.4 %), medium (41.3 %), and high appraisal profiles (40.4 %). Students in the high appraisal profile showed the highest level of positive emotions and the lowest level of negative emotions, followed by those with the medium appraisal profile. Those in the extrinsic value orientation profile, however, displayed the lowest level of positive emotions and the highest level of negative emotions. The four profiles also showed significant correlations with the students' background characteristics. Educational relevance statementThis study aims to explore possible subgroups of control and value appraisals and their relationships with academic emotions in mathematics classrooms. This study suggests that students in the high appraisal profile (i.e., high academic control and value) tend to report high levels of positive emotions and low levels of negative emotions, followed by students in the medium profile (i.e., medium academic control and value). Additionally, students in the extrinsic value orientation profile (i.e., high extrinsic value but low academic control and intrinsic value) performed worse than the students in other three appraisal profiles both emotionally and academically. Therefore, it is crucial to foster students' competence beliefs and intrinsic value in mathematics to enhance their positive learning experiences.

What can multi-factors contribute to Chinese EFL learners’ implicit L2 knowledge?

Abstract The goal of second language (L2) learning is spontaneous, unreflective L2 use, relying primarily on implicit L2 knowledge. While most research has compared the methods and effects of explicit and implicit instruction, less attention has been given to individual differences (IDs) and their impact on implicit L2 knowledge. A sparse body of research has addressed the relationship between IDs and implicit L2 knowledge considering age effects and age-related language analytic ability, with conative and affective factors receiving scant attention. This paper, grounded in the control-value theory, advocates a holistic view to comprehensively investigate how language analytic ability, language learning motivation, learner beliefs, and foreign language anxiety can contribute to implicit L2 knowledge among Chinese postgraduate students. The findings indicate that cognitive, conative, and affective factors have direct or indirect effects on implicit L2 knowledge. Implications for L2 teaching and research are discussed in detail.

Online class-related boredom and perceived academic achievement among college students: the roles of gender and school motivation

Online class-related boredom among college students is an academic emotion most often ignored by the academic community. Therefore, only a few empirical studies have been conducted by research scholars on this subject. From the viewpoint of self-determination theory and the control-value theory of achievement emotion, this research study attempts to investigate the association between online class-related boredom, school motivation, and academic achievement. Accordingly, a total of 1294 Chinese college students are taken on board. Noticeably, the study findings indicate that online class-related boredom among college students exerts a negative correlation with their academic achievement. Furthermore, intrinsic school motivation mediates the relationship between online class-related boredom and academic achievement, whereas extrinsic school motivation also exhibits a relevant effect. Lastly, gender moderates the mediating effect of school motivation between online class-related boredom and academic achievement. Specifically, in male students, increased online class-related boredom is associated with higher levels of extrinsic motivation. In contrast, in female students, increased online class-related boredom correlates with reduced levels of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. In the context of research significance, on the one hand, this paper suggests that college teachers should pay due attention to the negative emotions and school motivation of college students in online classrooms, in order to improve teaching practice; on the other hand, this research study further empirically ascertains the control-value theory of achievement emotions and self-determination theory.

University teachers’ self-reported emotions and electrodermal activity during teaching-related working events

ABSTRACT This intensive longitudinal study examined Finnish technical university teachers’ (N = 22) self-reported emotions and electrodermal activity during teaching-related events (teaching, tutoring, planning, assessing). Emotions were examined in the context of control-value theory (Pekrun, R. 2006. “The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions: Assumptions, Corollaries and Implications for Educational Research and Practice.” Educational Psychology Review 18 (4): 315–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9). An experience sampling method with event-contingent sampling was applied via a smartphone application for a measurement period of two weeks. Participants were also equipped with a smart ring biosensor that recorded their electrodermal activity (EDA, an indicator of physiological arousal). Results indicated that teaching-related events led to predominantly positive prospective and retrospective emotions. Interactive events, such as teaching and tutoring, were especially effective in generating positive outcomes and activating emotions. Results showed that that teaching-related events had higher EDA levels than typical work hours. In addition, higher within-teacher EDA levels during teaching-related events slightly increased the likelihood of reporting positive emotional valence after teaching. Further, results indicated that teacher-student interaction (teaching and tutoring events) and higher EDA during, and emotional activity before, teaching-related events increased the likelihood of activating emotions after teaching. The results can be generalized with reservations due to the small number of participants.

The relationship between future orientation and academic anxiety: the mediating role of achievement goal orientation and sex difference

ABSTRACT Due to the prevalence of academic anxiety among primary school students and its long-term effect on the physical and mental health, researchers have carried out a lot of research on it. According to the control-value theory of achievement emotions, this cross-sectional study sought to explore the relationship between students’ future orientation and academic anxiety, to reveal the mediating effect of achievement goal orientations, and to test gender difference. A total of 5,330 students in grades 4–6 from 8 primary schools in China were included in the questionnaire-based investigation. The results showed that (1) girls’ academic anxiety, master-avoidance, and performance-avoidance goal orientations were significantly higher than those of boys, while performance-approach goal orientation was significantly lower than those of boys; (2) future orientation significantly positively predicted academic anxiety; (3) achievement goal orientation played a mediating role between future orientation and academic anxiety; and (4) there was a significant gender difference in this mediating effect. The four areas of achievement goal orientations have a complete mediating effect on academic anxiety for boys, but the master-approach and master-avoidance goal orientations play a partial mediating role between future orientation and academic anxiety for girls. This study contributes to deep understanding of academic anxiety among Chinese pupils, and implications for academic emotions research and educational practice.

Scared, Bored or Happy? Latent Profile Analyses of Primary School Students’ Academic Emotions about Math

Emotions and motivation are central to learning. Control–value theory (CVT) and expectancy–value theory (EVT) explain how emotions and expectations of success affect students’ task engagement. Supported by these two frameworks, this study investigates the emotion profiles for maths among fourth- and fifth-grade students (N = 6778) from three European countries and their links to motivation and achievement. Methods: Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we analysed the emotional profiles in students, as well as their associations with gender, country, grade, motivation and maths achievement. Results: Five profiles emerged in the grade 4 data (Bored, Bored and Anxious, Moderate, Happy and Anxious). All five profiles were visible in the grade 5 data, coupled with an additional sixth profile, which appeared only in grade 5 (i.e., Apprehensive–Happy). Girls were found more commonly in the Anxious profile and were less likely to appear in the Happy profile. Norwegian students were more prominent in the Bored and Moderate profiles. Conversely, Portuguese students stood out more in the Anxious profile and were less present in the Bored and Moderate profiles. The Serbian dataset did not stand out, with a particular pattern observed in grade 4. Nevertheless, Serbian fifth graders were overly visible in the Bored and Anxious profile and less present in the Happy and Apprehensive–Happy groups. The Happy profile had higher scores for all task values except for cost and was, along with the Moderate profile, associated with higher achievement; the Bored and Anxious profile was associated with higher scores of cost value and lower achievement. Conclusions: A person-centred approach allowed for a more diverse view of how students experience emotions. These findings highlight the complex interplay between emotions, motivation and achievement, which is affected by cultural and educational contexts.

Modelling Chinese EFL learners’ engagement in language MOOCs: a control-value perspective

Drawing on the control-value theory, this study attempts to examine the effects of cognitive appraisals (perceived control, intrinsic and extrinsic value) and achievement emotions (pride, anxiety, and boredom) on Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners’ engagement in LMOOCs. In doing so, several hypotheses were proposed and validated from a survey of 520 Chinese EFL undergraduates who used LMOOCs. Based on the structural equation modelling analysis, results revealed that (1) perceived control and intrinsic value had a positive and direct impact on engagement in LMOOCs; (2) perceived control and intrinsic value had a positive effect on pride and a negative effect on anxiety and boredom, while extrinsic value only had a positive impact on pride and anxiety; (3) while pride had a positive effect on engagement, boredom negatively affected engagement in LMOOCs; (4) perceived control and intrinsic value had a positive and indirect effect on engagement mediated by pride and boredom, while extrinsic value positively affected engagement in LMOOCs through pride. Implications regarding the causal relations of cognitive appraisals, achievement emotions, and engagement in LMOOCs have been discussed for further research.

A latent profiling approach to foreign language enjoyment and L2 achievement

ABSTRACT Both Broaden-and-Build theory and Control-Value theory (CVT) posit that enjoyment contributes to academic achievement. However, empirical studies show mixed results concerning the predictive effects between these constructs in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This study examines the link between second language (L2) achievement and Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) among 1,360 Chinese tertiary-level students learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Participants completed a national standardised English language test and an FLE questionnaire. Data analysis involved the use of Mplus to perform factor mixture modelling (FMM), a technique that identifies latent subgroups within the sample based on their response patterns. Results revealed four distinct profiles, each displaying different FLE-L2 achievement profile characteristics. The importance of this study lies in its analytic approach, which recognises the non-uniform connections between the three dimensions of FLE and L2 achievement across learners. This finding challenges the notion of straightforward correlations and sheds light on the complexities of these relationships, thereby addressing inconsistencies observed in previous studies and paving the way for more nuanced future research.

Investigating the Role of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies in Online Bachelor’s Degree Completion Rates in Ghana

Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate the exploring the relationship between digital literacy skills and student success in online science courses in Indonesia. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Recent research on digital literacy skills and student success in online science courses in Indonesia indicates a strong link between proficient digital skills and academic achievement. Students who demonstrate competence in areas like information literacy and online collaboration tend to perform better and show higher levels of engagement in their courses. This highlights the significant impact of digital literacy on enhancing learning outcomes and fostering self-directed learning among Indonesian students in online science education. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Social cognitive theory, control-value theory of achievement emotions & cognitive load theory may be used to anchor future studies on the exploring the relationship between digital literacy skills and student success in online science courses in Indonesia. Educational institutions should integrate explicit SRL instruction into online curriculum design. Policymakers should develop guidelines and standards that promote the integration of SRL strategies into online education policies.

Relationships Between Students’ Emotional Experiences and Cognitive and Physical Achievement During a Middle School Hybrid Sport Education Tactical Model Season

Purpose: Despite evidence regarding emotions’ impact on learners, there remains a paucity of research examining the relationships between student emotions and achievement within contemporary instructional models. Grounded in the Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions, changes in middle school students’ motivational beliefs, emotions, and learning outcomes across one hybrid Sport Education Tactical Model season were examined. Methods: Middle school students (N = 72) completed pre–post surveys regarding their control-value beliefs and emotions. They also completed physical and cognitive tests, and daily physical activity tracking. Repeated measures of multivariate covariance and regression were tested. Results: Students’ perceived control improved, while their extrinsic value reduced. Emotions did not significantly change, while cognitive exam scores and game performance increased. Conclusion: Emotions varied and influenced intentions for play as opposed to learning and achievement. The study provides preliminary insights into the complexity of how student emotions connect to their motivation and learning within the hybrid Sport Education Tactical Model.

The relationship between trait emotional intelligence and English language performance among Chinese EFL university students: The mediating roles of boredom and burnout

With the wave of positive psychology in second language acquisition, more emotion factors are gaining scholarly attention. Despite extensive research on Trait Emotional Intelligence (TEI), burnout and boredom in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) studies, the interplay of these variables remains unknown and the related impact on EFL learner's English Language Performance (ELP) is still underexplored. Given this, in light of Control-Value Theory (CVT), the present study used a quantitative method to examine the mediating roles of boredom and burnout in the connection between TEI and ELP among Chinese university students engaged in EFL endeavor. Data were collected from 489 second-year EFL students. Structural equation modeling was utilized to analyze the relationships. Results revealed that TEI significantly influences ELP among Chinese EFL university students, through its correlation with both boredom and burnout. Higher levels of TEI are associated with reduced experiences of these negative states, which in turn are linked to improved language performance. These may imply that teacher educators should integrate emotional intelligence training into curricula and professional development to improve students' effectiveness and learning outcome.

How does basic psychological needs satisfaction contribute to EFL learners’ achievement and positive emotions? The mediating role of L2 self-concept

Based on an integrated framework of the self-determination theory and the control-value theory of achievement emotions, the current study investigated the impact of basic psychological needs (BPN) satisfaction on two types of educational outcomes, i.e., academic achievement and positive emotions in second language (L2) acquisition. This study also explored whether academic self-concept (L2 self-concept in this case) would mediate the effects of BPN satisfaction on L2 achievement and emotions. A total of 391 Chinese undergraduates studying English as a foreign language were recruited for the present study. They completed measures on basic psychological needs satisfaction, L2 self-concept (English self-concept in this case), English achievement, and positive academic emotions (i.e., enjoyment, pride, and hope). After controlling for demographics, structural equation modeling indicated that BPN satisfaction was positively associated with positive emotions and this association was partially mediated by English self-concept. More importantly, English self-concept fully mediated the positive impact of basic psychological needs satisfaction on English achievement. Our findings acknowledged BPN satisfaction as a contributor to desirable learning outcomes and highlighted the important role of L2 self-concept in second language acquisition. Satisfying students’ basic psychological needs and particularly maximizing their L2 self-concept have significant pedagogical implications for second language education.