Termite Control Research Articles

Challenges in baiting to manage fungus-growing termite colonies.

Fungus-growing termites (Termitidae: Macrotermitinae) exhibit significant diversity and abundance in tropical and subtropical ecosystems. Fungus-growing termites consume a wide range of materials, including leaf litter, woody debris, agricultural crops, and wooden structures, including houses. Their presence in termite baiting stations can impede the control of other residential termite pests, such as Coptotermes spp. Current control practices for managing fungus-growing termites are both costly and time-consuming, rendering them impractical for large-scale application. In our review, we analyzed recent biological and control studies on fungus-growing termites to identify key challenges and suggest improvements in termite management strategies. We identified 5 primary factors contributing to the low efficacy of current control measures for fungus-growing termites: (i) sporadic foraging behavior, which diminishes consistent bait intake; (ii) naturally small colony sizes; (iii) the nonmolting nature of the worker caste, reducing the effectiveness of chitin synthesis inhibitors; (iv) fungal cultivation, which delays and mitigates pesticide toxicity; and (v) wide-range of feeding niche, which lessens their consumption of cellulose-based baits. These insights are critical for developing more effective termite control strategies.

Subterranean termites (Coptotermes formosanus [Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae]) colonies can readily intercept commercial inground bait stations placed at label-prescribed distance

Abstract The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, is both an economically impactful pest and a successful invader. One method of subterranean termite control is baiting. According to the label, baits are installed surrounding the structure at a uniform interval distance of ≈3 m. However, homeowners and pest control professionals are often concerned that termites may bypass bait stations and have access to the structure. To address this concern, we experimentally duplicated field conditions using a large planar arena (3.6 m × 1.1 m) to study the optimal distribution of bait stations based on colony-wide foraging activity. We installed 2 bait stations 3 m apart as per label instructions and introduced C. formosanus colonies to allow them to explore the arena by tunneling through the sand. In this real-scale arena, all termite colonies intercepted a bait station in an average of 21 (± 8 SD) days. We assumed that termites could find bait faster if there were more bait stations by overlaying additional hypothetical baits closer than per label instruction, but the improvement was incremental, requiring 4 times more stations (0.45 m interval) to obtain a significant difference. We also revealed the characteristic behavior after intercepting bait stations, termites created a burst of tunnels that radiated from the bait station. These branching tunnels averaged 16 cm in length, suggesting immediate interceptions of additional auxiliary stations placed within 16 cm of an active station. These findings contribute to our understanding on how subterranean termites intercept inground bait stations.

How do termite baits work? implication of subterranean termite colony demography on the successful implementation of baits.

In 1995, the launch of the first commercial chitin synthesis inhibitor (CSI) bait led to the transformation of the subterranean termite control industry around the world. Their slow mode of action, which relies on both their ability to be transferred among nestmates and termite molting biology, has made them cost-effective solutions for subterranean termite colony elimination while minimizing the introduction of pesticides into the soil toward an environmentally sustainable strategy. However, despite successful commercial implementations, the acceptance of their use varies within the pest control industry around the world. Notably, the nuanced complexity of how CSI baits lead to colony elimination upon feeding by termite foragers has, in part, remained elusive for the past 3 decades, allowing for long-lasting misconceptions to persist. A recent series of studies has since provided complementary elements of understanding how CSI baits utilize termites' inherent colony demography, behavior, and physiology to trigger colony elimination after a characteristic succession of events within the colony collapse process. I here provide a synthetic overview of subterranean termite colony characteristics when exposed to CSI baits using Coptotermes (Wasmann) (Blattodea: Heterotermitidae) as a primary model system. The changes in colony demography through the colony collapse reflect how the mode of action of CSI baits makes them a prime solution for sustainable subterranean termite pest management. Following decades of innovation, ongoing interactions among termite researchers, bait product manufacturers, and pest management providers must continue to bring solutions to existing and emerging termite pest problems around the world.

Process and mechanism of termite impact on soil and plant.

Termites, as a kind of nesting social insects, are often confused as worldwide "pests" because some of their groups have great destructive effects. The vast majority of termites can regulate ecosystem functions and ser-vices by participating in biogeochemical cycles, known as "ecosystem engineers". We reviewed studies on the effects of termites on the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of mound soil ecosystems and the composition and diversity of plant communities. Termites could form unique soil "biogenic aggregates" and "resource heterogeneity patches", which affect microbial community structure, extracellular enzyme activity, physicochemical property and greenhouse gas emission, thereby affecting plant growth, community composition and structure, and vegetation productivity. However, this effect significantly differed among termite groups and functional groups, and was dependent on regional soil environment and microclimate conditions. Meanwhile, termite-mound could effectively improve ecosystem adaptation or resistance to environmental stress through the above process. Future research should focus on the following directions: 1) studying the trophic cascading effect of termite-centered soil multilevel biological network and the potential effect on biogeochemical cycle from microscale (aggregate level) to macroscale (landscape level); 2) exploring the potential of termite mound soil as a fertility amendment in tropical regions, and mining beneficial microbial functional genes to develop related products for termite control.

Repellent and toxic effects of indigenous plant seed extracts on fungus-growing subterranean termites (Blattodea: Termitidae)

The indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides to control fungus-growing termites has led to biological and environmental hazards and has contributed to the development of resistance in these pests. In the search for environmentally safe alternatives, plant-derived biopesticides have been explored as replacements for synthetic insecticides. The present study aims to shed light on the use of naturally occurring anti-termite compounds extracted from the seeds of indigenous plants. Specifically, seed extracts from Moringa oleifera (sohanjna) and Citrullus colocynthis (bitter apple) were tested using methanol and water as solvents in bioassays against fungus-growing subterranean termites. The entomotoxic properties of the methanolic and aqueous extracts from these plant seeds were examined to determine their effects on termite mortality, repellency, and foraging behavior. The results revealed that both plant seed extracts negatively impacted the survival and repellency of termites. C. colocynthis showed better results in terms of termite mortality and had lower LT50 values compared to M. oleifera. However, in terms of tunneling behavior, M. oleifera) showed more significant effects than C. colocynthis. Based on the outcomes of these trials, both C. colocynthis and M. oleifera demonstrated significant potential as effective termiticides. Therefore, it is recommended that these native plant seed extracts be incorporated into termite control strategies.

Handwritten Digital Signatures Accuracy Enhancement Comparison on Android-Based Mobile Application Systems

The research reported in this paper aimed to improve the quality, size ratio, and storage size of Digital Signatures (DS) used in the e-form Fumida app, a mobile application employed by PT Fumida Pestindo Jaya (Fumida) pest control, termite control, and fumigation services for data collection and verification. The application was developed using MADLC method for research and development of mobile application and utilized as a replacement for paper media used to fill in data related to work with the DS feature (e-signature), from which verification/authentication of the work results carried out by Fumida to its clients is given. The original DS, while replacing paper forms, suffered quality and accuracy loss when resized for printing, prompting the investigation of three methods to enhance their integrity. This process was subsequently examined using a questionnaire with the help of 22 respondents and calculation of questionnaire data. The results of our study showed that our model 3 emerged as the most effective solution, maintaining high image quality and accuracy even when resized.

Transcriptome analysis of Reticulitermes flaviceps exposed to Mentha spicata essential oil and carvone indicates a potential neurotoxic mechanism of action characterized by intracellular calcium influx mediated by dopamine receptors

Reticulitermes flaviceps is an economically important pest in agriculture, forestry, and construction. Recent studies have shown an increase in research focusing on the anti-termite properties of plant essential oils, however, there remains a lack of information regarding the specific molecular mechanism involved. In this study, RNA-seq analysis was conducted on termites exposed to Mentha spicata essential oil (EO) and carvone, leading to the discovery of various genes that were expressed differentially under different treatment conditions. Numerous genes that exhibited a response to M. spicata EO and carvone found to be associated with stress-related pathways, such as drug metabolism cytochrome P450, glutathione metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, citric acid cycle, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, cell apoptosis, the AMPK signalling pathway, the mTOR signalling pathway, the longevity regulation pathway, ubiquitin-mediated protein hydrolysis, and the calcium signalling pathway. The up-regulation of genes (SPHK) associated with calcium channels, such as SPHK, indicates a potential mechanism of neurotoxicity, while the up-regulation of apoptosis-associated genes, including ACTB_G1, PYG, SQSTM1, RNF31, suggests a potential mechanism of cytotoxicity. The metabolism of M. spicata EO induces oxidative stress, elevates free Ca2+ levels in mitochondria, and initiates the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), ultimately resulting in programmed cell necrosis and apoptosis, as well as facilitating cellular autophagy. The monoterpenes exhibited neurotoxic and cytotoxic effects on R. flaviceps and could be exploited to advance termiticide development and eco-friendly termite control.

Novel acrylamide-based baits for effective control of subterranean termites (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae).

Acrylamide-based bait has super water absorption making it highly attractive to subterranean termites that are lured by wood with high water content. This study investigated the control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites. In particular, we evaluated the water-absorption capacity, attractiveness to subterranean termites, and control efficiency of these baits on subterranean termites through wooden blocks (Populus deltoides and three types of particleboards). The results indicated a substantial water absorption capacity of acrylamide (70.6%; control: 14.8%) and a strong attraction for feeding subterranean termites (P. deltoides: 198 highest; 81 lowest subterranean termites individuals; combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 168 highest; 36 lowest subterranean termites individuals). When acrylamide was combined with boric acid at the highest concentration, it resulted in the lowest wood consumption rates (P. deltoides: 24.1%; control: 63.8%, combination of neem leaves and walnut shells: 32.5%; control: 62.1%). In conclusion, this research supports the commercial viability of employing innovative acrylamide-based toxic baits and particleboards for subterranean termite management. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Bioactive enhancement of PVA films through CNC reinforcement and Ficus auriculata fruit extract: A novel synthesis for sustainable applications

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have received immense interest lately as a potential nanomaterial because of their excellent mechanical and biological properties. This investigation aims to formulate a composite coating made of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), CNCs, and a methanolic extract from the dried leaves and fruit of the fig tree (Ficus auriculata) (FAE). A sequential procedure to get CNCs included alkaline and acid hydrolysis, sonication, and suitable methods for purification. Analytical techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the CNC-loaded films. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of composites revealed superior thermal stability of the CNC-reinforced films versus control, evident from higher degradation temperatures, indicating desirable environmental resistance of proposed coatings for wood surfaces. The termite control was made more effective through synergistic use of a combination of CNCs, PVA, and FAE with proven insecticidal properties. The composite material was examined for its anti-termite resistance and termite mortality rate, and demonstrated that when used together, CNCs, PVA, and FAE were collectively and synergistically more effective at keeping termites away. The findings of this study demonstrate that the evolved composite could be used to develop anti-termite products that are environmentally benign and respond well. Synthesized composites also demonstrated significant antibacterial activity. Among all films, a combination of 0.7 % extract in PVA displayed excellent results with 26 and 28 mm diameter for growth inhibition zone for Gram-positive bacteria whereas 26 mm for both negative bacterial strains. The findings suggest a potential use of this composite as a sustainable, environmentally resistant, and eco-friendly alternative for termite/bacterial control in various building materials and wood preservation applications.

Efficacy of Mentha piperita (Peppermint), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Syzygium aromaticum (Clove), Brassica nigra (Mustard) oils on termites

Termites are detritophagous insects feeding on plant parts and wood component of building causing great loss thus, they are important to be managed. The use of pesticides of plant origin in pest management is considered to be environment friendly unlike synthetic pesticides that poses great threat to the environment. In this research, efficacy comparison of different Botanical oils (Mentha piperita, Azadirachta indica, Syzygium aromaticum, Brassica nigra) regarding their anti-termite activity was calculated. The Botanical oils were tested for their insecticidal activity by exposing termites to oil. The study involves four treatment groups with varying concentration of oils (0.5 ml, 1 ml), each group consisted of 15 termites. The number of mortalities (mean± S.E.) after treatment was calculated and analyzed. The Botanical oils were effective in killing termites. 1 ml Botanical oil of Mentha piperita shows highest average mortality. The results suggested that these essential oils had beneficial activities of economic value for the development of new or latest and safe termite control product.

Wood vinegar’s role in termite control: from mystery to reality

Wood vinegar’s role in termite control: from mystery to reality

The Function of Termicin from Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) in the Defense against Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Beauveria bassiana (Bb) Infection.

Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) is a subterranean termite species known for causing severe damage to trees and structures such as dams. During the synergistic evolution of O. formosanus with pathogenic bacteria, the termite has developed a robust innate immunity. Termicin is a crucial antimicrobial peptide in termites, significantly contributing to the defense against external infections. Building upon the successful construction and expression of the dsRNA-HT115 engineering strains of dsOftermicin1 and dsOftermicin2 in our laboratory, this work employs the ultrasonic breaking method to establish an inactivated dsOftermicins-HT115 technological system capable of producing a substantial quantity of dsRNA. This approach also addresses the limitation of transgenic strains which cannot be directly applied. Treatment of O. formosanus with dsOftermicins produced by this method could enhance the virulence of both Bt and Bb to the termites. This study laid the theoretical groundwork for the development of novel termite immunosuppressants and for the advancement and application of termite biological control strategies.

Potential use of pinenes to improve localized insecticide injections targeting the western drywood termite (Blattodea: Kalotermitidae).

The western drywood termite, Incisitermes minor (Hagen), causes significant economic damage to wood structures in the United States of America, especially California. When infestation is not widespread, localized insecticide injections may be useful for remedial control. However, the extensive gallery structure of drywood termites and their tendency to aggregate at specific parts of the galleries can impact the efficacy of localized insecticide injection. Chemicals that attract termites from a distance may improve the localized insecticide injection by increasing the number of termites contacting the insecticide residues. Two volatile terpenes, α-pinene and β-pinene, commonly found in many coniferous timber trees, were applied to artificial termite galleries to determine if termites were attracted from their original aggregation site. Furthermore, we examined if adding these pinenes would improve the overall efficacy of some insecticide products for drywood termite control. Behavioral assay results showed that the treatment with pinenes increased the likelihood that drywood termites would leave their original aggregation site and contact the treated part of the gallery. When tested with the pesticide products applied in a small area away from the termite aggregation, β-pinene significantly accelerated the time course of mortality for the aqueous fipronil. The efficacy of disodium octaborate tetrahydrate dust was not influenced by the addition of pinenes. Implications for drywood termite management and future research directions are discussed.

Indigenous Knowledge in Termite Management of Agricultural Crops – A Review

Some species of termites are becoming a threat to the farming community as they are directly and indirectly using major losses to the agricultural system. Reports on economic losses caused by termite infestations have been made worldwide. Intensive use of insecticides which is of great environmental and health concerns was the most frequently control option. To make termites management environmentally friendly, there is a need to integrate indigenous knowledge about pest management techniques into the scaling-up process in order to improve farmers’ pest management practices. For centuries, humans planned agricultural production and conserved natural resources with the instruments of indigenous knowledge (IK). The development of indigenous knowledge systems is cumulative, representing generations of experience, careful observations, trial and error experiments. The objective of this review, we present the available information related to indigenous technology in termite management practices and to identify suitable and sustainable indigenous methods adopted by resource poor farmers for termite control.

Estimation of the Damage Risk Range and Activity Period of Termites (Reticulitermes speratus) in Korean Wooden Architectural Heritage Building Sites

Korean wooden architectural heritage buildings are often damaged by termites, and climate change is expected to exacerbate the problem. To prevent termite damage, it is necessary to identify the habitat range and activity period of termites. In this study, we comprehensively analyzed the ecological characteristics of Reticulitermes speratus, the dominant termite species in South Korea, past termite damage records of wooden architectural heritage buildings, and climate data (2000–2019). We determined that termite infestations could potentially occur in 98.5% of the total studied area, except for a few mountainous regions in South Korea. In addition, termites were active for an average of 209 days per year. The habitat range of termites appears to be gradually expanding, possibly as a result of a combination of anthropogenic interventions, rising temperatures caused by climate change, and the ecological characteristics of termites. In the future, it is imperative to implement enhanced preventive and active termite control measures to preserve the original wooden architectural heritage buildings of South Korea.

Involvement of a catalase gene in lignin catalysis and immune defense against pathogenic fungus in Coptotermes formosanus: a potential new target for termite control.

Detoxifying enzymes are likely involved in lignin feeding and immune defense mechanisms within termites, rendering them potential targets for biological control. However, investigations into the dual functionality of termite detoxification enzymes in vivo have not been documented. In this study, the complete cDNA of the catalase gene (Cfcat) derived from Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki was amplified. CFCAT comprises an open reading frame spanning 1527 bp, encoding a 508-amino acid sequence. The highest expression was observed in the epidermal tissues (including the fat body and hemolymph) followed by the foregut/salivary gland. Furthermore, we confirmed the catalase activity of the recombinant Cfcat protein. Using RNA interference (RNAi) technology, the importance of Cfcat in the lignin-feeding of C. formosanus was demonstrated, and the role of Cfcat in innate immunity was investigated. Survival assays showed that Cfcat RNAi significantly increased the susceptibility of C. formosanus to Metarhizium anisopliae. Irrespective of the infection status, Cfcat inhibition had a significant impact on multiple factors of humoral and intestinal immunity in C. formosanus. Notably, Cfcat RNAi exhibited a more pronounced immunosuppressive effect on humoral immunity than on intestinal immunity. Cfcat plays an important role in the regulation of innate immunity and lignin feeding in C. formosanus. Cfcat RNAi can weaken the immune response of termites against M. anisopliae, which may aid the biocontrol efficiency of M. anisopliae against C. formosanus. This study provides a theoretical basis and technical reference for the development of a novel biocontrol strategy targeting detoxifying enzymes of termites. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

The diversity and distribution of residential termites in the Minahasa Raya Region, North Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

Abstract. Manoppo JSS, Putra RE, Dungani R, Ahmad I. 2024. The diversity and distribution of residential termites in the Minahasa Raya Region, North Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 39-48. Termites are major pests in urban settings, particularly due to their preference for wood, despite its ecological importance leading to structural damage to buildings. Studies showed a gap in the North Sulawesi Region, Indonesia, particularly in termite distribution, control, and economic impact in residential zones. This study aimed to (i) gather preliminary data on termite species in Minahasa and North Sulawesi from the literature; (ii) locate termite colonies via house/building surveys and baiting; (iii) map the distribution of identified termite species by Geographical Information System (GIS); and (iv) record environmental characteristics relevant to termite distribution and related damages. The study revealed a diversity of residential termite species in terms of morphological characteristics and habitats. Three termite families were identified: Rhinotermitidae, Termitidae, and Kalotermitidae, encompassing five sub-families and six genera, with the most notable species being Cryptotermes brevis Walker 1853, Odontotermes javanicus Holmgren, 1912, and Nasutitermes atripennis Haviland, 1898 among others. The Cryptotermes and Odontotermes were the most commonly encountered genera in Minahasa Raya's residential areas.

Investigation of termite attack, Macrotermes gilvus Hagen (Termitidae: Blattodea), to cocoa (Theobroma cacao)

Macrotermes gilvus is a major pest in the cocoa cultivation industry in Indonesia, with huge productivity. The success of a termite control technology is largely determined by the availability of information about the biology of termites which are pests. Investigating M. gilvus attacks was surveyed on polyculture cocoa plantations in Pidie, Aceh Tamiang, and Southeast Aceh Districts, Aceh Province. We found various levels of termite attacks characterized by mounds (nests) and galleries on the cocoa. The presence of nests and galleries damages the pith tissue and creates empty spaces, which are later filled with soil. Lack of land sanitation can trigger termite attacks on the plantations.

Pemanfaatan Air Leri dan Air Mikroorganisme Lokal Sebagai Pengendali Rayap Tanah

Termites (Coptotermes curvignathus) are considered more dangerous than other termite species as they can cause significant damage to plantation and agricultural crops, with widespread distribution. The use of chemical pesticides to control this pest can lead to resistance and have negative impacts on the environment and human health. An environmentally friendly solution involves utilizing natural plants/substances as botanical insecticides, such as rice washing water and local microorganism (MOL) water. The aim of this research is to evaluate the effects of these two substances on termite population control and determine the optimal formulation that can act as a termite repellent. and to determine the optimal formulation as an anti-termite. The research methodology involves determining formulations of botanical insecticides, namely 100% rice washing water, 100% MOL water, 50% rice washing water : 50% MOL water, 75% rice washing water : 25% MOL water, 25% rice washing water : 75% MOL water. Each test box is filled 5 soldier termites and 20 worker termites, then provided with test papers that have been soaked in the predetermined formulation. Each treatment is repeated three times and observed every 24 hours for 72 hours. The research results indicate that all formulations uses did not have a significant impact on termite mortality. It can be concluded that the use of rice washing water and MOL water in the tested formulations is not effective as an insecticide to control termite.

Screening the diversity of cellulolytic bacteria inhabiting the gut of subterranean termite Coptotermes sp. and their control using Azadirachta indica leaf extract

Termite control is essential to mitigate the damage they cause worldwide. It can be achieved by targeting the celluloytic bacteria that thrive within the termite gut. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to isolate and characterize the cellulose-degrading bacteria from the gut of the wood termite, Coptotermes sp. The cellulose degrading bacteria was isolated from the gut of the termite using the medium containing cellulose as the only carbon source. Three different bacteria were isolated and their cellulolytic activity on CMC-containing media was confirmed by the congo red clearing zone assay. Based on the morphological and physiological characteristics the isolates were identified as Bacillus sp., Enterobacter sp., and Micrococcus sp. Of the three isolates Bacillus sp. exhibit maximum cellulolytic activity. In vitro antibacterial efficacy of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf extract against the cellulolytic bacteria was analysed. All the three isolates were found to be susceptible to the neem leaf extract. In addition to bactericidal activity termicidal potential of the leaf extract was determined by no-choice bioassay method.