Control In Poland Research Articles

Stratified reproduction and ableism: Women with disabilities and navigating reproduction and social control in Poland

The article applies the concept of stratified reproduction to analyse experiences of women with disabilities in Poland. Stratified reproduction – rewarding motherhood for some and disempowering others from being parents – and its relation to ableism is explored in a country context, where reproductive rights struggles are prevalent in the public sphere. Based on qualitative empirical research (in-depth semi-structured interviews and focus group interviews) with 50 women with disabilities, the article shows that women with disabilities are subjected to mechanisms of social control that limit their reproductive decision-making and discourage them from becoming parents. Social control is explored in the context of withdrawal of information about reproductive health and sexuality, navigating access and fear of custody deprivation based on ableist presumptions. The ambivalence between social expectations related to parenthood versus performing care work is explored. The analysis shows that women with disabilities navigate exclusionary norms and challenge understandings of who can become a parent and who can make decisions about who can become a parent. This article offers the concept of stratified reproduction to explain the structural inequalities experienced by women with disabilities with regard to reproduction, and highlights the importance of studying ableism as an essential factor within the reproductive realm.

Dual voice on tobacco control in Poland. Inequalities, urgent needs, new challenges

Dual voice on tobacco control in Poland. Inequalities, urgent needs, new challenges

Routine use of automated FiO2 control in Poland: prospective registry and survey.

The performance of automated control of inspired oxygen (A-FiO2) has been confirmed in dozens of studies but reports of routine use are limited. Broadly adopted in Poland, our aim is to share that experience. We used a prospectively planned observational study of the performance, general use patterns, unit practices, and problems with A-FiO2, based on a web registry of case reports, complemented by surveys of subjective impressions. In 2019, a total of 92 A-FiO2 systems were in routine use in 38 centers. Of the 38 centers, 20 had agreed in 2013 to participate in the project. In these centers, A-FiO2 was applied in infants of all weights, but some centers restricted its use to weaning from oxygen and unstable infants. A cohort had reported their experience with each use (5/20 centers, 593 cases). A quarter of those infants were managed with a lower target range and three-quarters with alarms looser than European guidelines for manual SpO2 control. The perceived primary advantages of A-FiO2 were as follows: keeping the readings in the target range, reducing exposure to SpO2 extremes, reducing risk from nurse distraction, reducing workload, and reducing alarm fatigue. Practices did evolve with experience, including implementing changes in the alarm strategy, indications for use, and target range. The potential for over-reliance on automation was cited as a risk. There were a few reports of limited effectiveness (moderate 12/593 and poor 2/593). Automated oxygen control is broadly perceived by users as an improvement in controlling SpO2 with infrequent problems.

Dylematy interpretacyjne stosowania sygnałów drogowych ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem sygnalizatora S-2 w „bezpiecznym” zarządzaniu ruchem drogowym. Część I/III

Interpretative dilemmas of the use of road signals with particular emphasis on the S-2 signal in “safe” traffic management The paper is devoted to the issue of signal traffic control in the context of proper design, opinion, and approval of traffic organization, focusing on the safety principles and practices of road users. Formal and legal aspects derived from the basic provisions of the Act on Road Traffic and its executive acts are explained in depth. Both designers and traffic management authorities have a major dilemma about the interpretation of many signal phase systems. This is confirmed by the results of a study - as many as 71% of the analyzed intersections contained errors in the application of the signal allowing turning in the direction indicated by the “green arrow”. In the paper the possibilities of using individual traffic signals on roads and intersections, and the problems associated with the so-called “green arrow” in particular are explained. Interpretative shortcomings regarding the traffic control of public transport means, traffic control at pedestrian crossings and in the “intersection areas”, including the entrance of a non-public road are thoroughly characterized. The paper is divided into three parts. The first one is devoted to the legal basis of signal traffic control in Poland, and description of the rules of traffic participants’ movement in the conditions of traffic controlled by traffic lights. The three-part paper, as a whole, will be crowned by the authors' conclusions in the final part, along with recommendations for amendments to the Act on Road Traffic and executive acts.

Head Lice Infestation in Schoolchildren, in Poland-Is There a Chance for Change?

Pediculosis capitis is a current and neglected health issue worldwide. The lack of screening programs contributes to the marginalization of the problem and delays therapeutic measures. Our study aimed to analyze the occurrence of this parasitosis in primary schools in Poland and to determine factors contributing to the persistence of its foci. The research tools were two questionnaires: one for primary school children and the other for school managers. While children answered questions about the epidemiology of pediculosis capitis and expressed their opinion on the hygienic condition of infested persons, the school directors were asked about the occurrence of head lice in schools, preventive measures, and institutions supporting schools in combating the infestation. The survey covered the period 2014–2018. Pediculosis capitis was reported in 87.5% of the schools. The greatest number of cases was reported in the group of 6–9 year-olds (68%). Among 4970 children, 16.7% had no knowledge of head lice; however, 57.1% wanted to increase their awareness of the problem. Campaigns on lice were conducted mainly as a result of emerging pediculosis capitis cases, and most schools could not rely on institutional support. Screening programs and preventive educational campaigns should be part of pediculosis capitis control in Poland.

On Priority Research Problems in the Scope of Public Finance Control in Poland

Abstract This article presents ten priority research problems in the scope of public finance control in Poland with a synthetic discussion of their aims. Implementation of the proposed research should serve a harmonious development of a part of financial law - called control of public finance. The article is mainly based on the Author’s own views and should encourage further scientific discussion on the mentioned topics.

The Judiciary Power of Discretion in Sanctioning the Facilitation of Unauthorised Stay in Poland

Migration control in Poland is significantly based on internal control practices carried out by street-level bureaucrats representing both law enforcement agents and low-level judges equipped with discretionary power. Based on empirical data from 243 criminal cases of facilitating unauthorised stay in Poland, we reflected on how the mentioned actors and, in particular, criminal judges interpret the existing provisions and to what extent they study cases independently or simply follow the logic of the law enforcement. We based our analysis on two distinct forms of identified cases of ‘supporting’ irregular migration; that is, participation in sham marriages and involvement in document fraud. We conclude that judges lacking expertise in the field relatively new to them may be less prone to question the effects of the preparatory proceedings, and they are not keen to look for any answers for themselves, especially to scrutinise and refer to the European Union law or jurisprudence. In their ‘craftwork’, they face cases that seem similar to them and, thus, not deserving of special attention. Judges lack the broader knowledge and possibly also reflexive thinking in assessing migration-related criminal cases brought to the courts by border guards, who prove their effectiveness inter alia through numbers of detected facilitators, not necessarily the roles played by them. All this may lead to unnecessarily broadening the scope of control over immigrants and a failure in achieving the objectives of criminal provisions.

Built Environment Challenges Due to Climate Change

Climate change has become one of the most significant problems of recent years. It results in a higher incidence of extreme events, such as strong winds, heavy precipitation, floods and droughts. Their consequences have a negative impact not only on the environment, but also on the engineering structures and the safety of the population. In this article, the relationship between the built environment and the effects of climate change is characterised in order to propose systemic changes to improve the adaptation of cities to climate change. Weather- and climate-related hazards for the built environment are analysed, and the possibilities to reduce the risk and mitigate the effect of construction disasters, should they occur. Moreover, a case study conducted in Central Europe has been presented. Based on quantitative data from the Central Office of Building Control in Poland from 2006-2018, the occurrence of construction disasters, their causes and consequences were examined. It was found that the main cause of disasters occurring in Poland during this period were random events (73%), which consisted in particular of extreme weather events such as strong wind or strong wind with accompanying heavy precipitation causing floods and landslides. The highest number of construction disasters (1113) was recorded in 2008, and as many as 95.6% were caused by random events. The conclusion indicates the need to prepare the built environment for climate change and to develop appropriate solutions to reduce the risk of climate-related hazards and to mitigate their effects. Based on the conducted analyses, a conceptual framework of improved climate-resilient built environment management was proposed.

Some Aspects of State-Building Processes in Carpathian Ukraine on the Eve of the Second World War

Autonomous Subcarpathian Rus’, and subsequently independent Carpathian Ukraine, existed for an extremely short period of time: from October 1938 to the second half of March, 1939. Despite this fact, there was such a rapid development of political events in the country that the attention of the whole world was drawn to Carpathian Ukraine. This also applies to the researchers who, at the end of the 1930s, began to study the history of Carpathian Ukraine. The declaration of independence on March 14, 1939 was explained by the desire of the Ukrainian population of the region for freedom. However, the disintegration of Czechoslovakia and the declaration of independence by Slovakia were also of great importance for this act. Despite some spontaneity and haste, this historical event in the life of not only Transcarpathian Ukrainians, but of the entire Ukrainian people was of great historical importance. After January 21, 1919, it was the second attempt to declare to the whole world that Ukrainian nation is alive and ready for state life. Although this act of declaration of independence, ratified on March 15, 1939 at the Soim of Carpathian Ukraine, was more symbolic than real politics, it played a large role in forming the self-consciousness of the entire Ukrainian nation. It was during the period of Carpathian Ukraine that a kind of transition from consciousness of Transcarpathian Ruthenians to Transcarpathian Ukrainians ended. In the late 1930s, Carpathian Ukraine was the only state where a small branch of the Ukrainian people proclaimed their independence and declared their desire to live a state life. The Ukrainians who were part of the USSR, as well as the Ukrainians under the control of Poland and Romania didn’t have such opportunity. However, they treated Carpathian Ukraine as an area where an attempt was made to restore Ukrainian statehood. On this basis, it is necessary to consider the formation of the Carpatho-Ukrainian state as the second stage – after the liberation contest of 1918–20’s – in the struggle for the creation of Ukrainian state formation on a separate Ukrainian territory

Interest in Working as an Infection Prevention and Control Nurse and Perception of This Position by Nursing Students-Results of a Pilot Study.

Background: The results of several studies in the area of infection control in Poland are disturbing. The situation may be shaped by many factors. However, the key factor for effective infection prevention and control is dedicated personnel, especially infection prevention and control nurses (IPCN). Nevertheless, based on the available published data and the authors’ experience, in many Polish hospitals infection control is not sufficiently appreciated by managers, it is consequently underfunded, and treated by medical staff as a nuisance. This may influence the nurses willingness to work as IPCN. The aim of the study was to assess the nursing students’ perception of the work of IPCN and their interest in employment in this position, as well as the potential reasons for choosing this particular specialization. Materials and methods: The study was conducted using the authors’ anonymous questionnaire conducted among nursing students of three Polish universities. The questionnaire was prepared by a panel of experts working in the field of infection control, including nurses working both as academic teachers and infection control nurses in hospitals. The design of the questionnaire was based on the authors’ own experience, knowledge, and exchanging information with the practitioners in infection control in Poland. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by the Cronbach alpha test. The raw alpha values and 95% CI for two main questions concerning opinion were: 0.76 (0.72–0.81) and 0.69 (0.63–0.75). Results: The study was conducted among 253 students, mostly women (98%) of full-time (31.4%) and extramural (68.6%) studies. The age range of the respondents was 20–58 years, median = 26 years, IQR = 19 years. To the key item in the questionnaire, i.e., “Would you like to work as an IPCN?”, 84.6% (214 respondents; first group) of the respondents answered “no” and 15.4% (39 respondents, second group) answered “yes”. The results revealed no significant differences between the two groups concerning the position responsibilities and appreciation by other medical staff. Additionally, for respondents willing to work as ICPN the most important issues were the influence on patient safety, expected salary, and possibility of professional development; for the respondents from the other group the most important issue was lack of contact with patients. The results concerning the students’ opinion on the perception of IPCN by medical personnel proved to be peculiar. About 80% of the respondents confirmed the IPCNs’ key role in ensuring patient and personnel safety, while only 31.6% declared their high standing in the hospital hierarchy. Conclusions: The obtained results indicate the necessity of thorough studies on the organization and structure of infection control in Polish hospitals, with a particular emphasis on building a positive perception of IPCNs by medical staff, as well as implementing an education campaign on infection control in the hospital environment.

The Absent Rus' Land and Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi

After the Mongol conquest of the 13th century, the Kyivan myth of the “Rus' Land” played a less important role in the east Slavic lands that came under the control of Poland or Lithuania than in the northeastern territory that came to constitute Muscovy. Galicia, which belonged to Poland, became known administratively as the Rus' Land. The Belarusian-Lithuanian Chronicles revived the concept in the Ruthenian lands incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In these chronicles, Rus' Land referred to all of Kyivan Rus' historically, but could denote all the Ruthenian territories in the Grand Duchy, or only those in Belarusian regions, or only those in Ukrainian regions in the post-Kyivan period. In addition, the Belarusian-Lithuanian Chronicles borrowed passages from northeastern Rus' chronicles in which the Rus' Land meant northeastern Rus' or Muscovy. In the text of the Union of Lublin, the Rus' Land connoted the four borderland palatinates annexed by Poland after the Union of Lublin. The Rus' Land also occasionally appeared in other sources. However, Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi and the mid-seventeenth century Cossacks did not invoke the term to legitimize their new polity, thus discarding an element of the Kyivan inheritance. In Ukraine, this discontinuity of the Rus' Land myth has not been appreciated and remains unexplained.

Country Note: Customs And Fiscal Control In Poland As A Radical Measure To Eliminate Tax Evasion

Many European countries with stable market economies have recently taken measures to seal their own tax systems. A noticeable phenomenon are the modifications in the organization and functioning of tax administrations and in the existing procedures for the control of taxpayers with respect to the tax law. Customs and fiscal control, which was recently introduced in Poland, is an example of a new control procedure aimed at eliminating tax evasion and combating tax fraud, especially carousel transactions in value added tax. The introduction of this control was preceded by the establishment of a special Customs and Fiscal Service within the modernized National Fiscal Administration. In the article, the author analyses and evaluates the regulations contained in the Act on National Fiscal Administration that concern the fundamental aspects of performing customs and fiscal control. In this contribution, the author emphasizes that the very broad scope of the subject matter of customs and fiscal control allows for a significant amount of freedom for authorities in shaping the control policy and modifying it depending on the risks involved. The exploitation of the powers granted by tax authorities in a disproportionate manner is a source of tax disputes initiated by the controlled taxpayers. Customs and fiscal control in the area of tax law compliance is one of four tax procedures in force in Poland that is aimed at verifying compliance with tax obligations. Although these procedures should be autonomous, in practice, the dualism of control has been maintained. Customs and fiscal control precedes tax proceedings and automatically transforms into these proceedings without any formal initiation. This is a completely innovative legal instrument that allows for rapid investigation and determination of the amount of tax arrears. In this author’s opinion, a customs and tax inspection is a special procedure for obtaining and collecting evidence that is subsequently employed in tax proceedings. Tax law, tax administration, custom and fiscal control, tax evasion.

The Establishment of National States and Formation of the State Border between the Ukrainian National Republic And the Republic Of Lithuania in 1918The Establishment of National States and Formation of the State Border between the Ukrainian National Republic And the Republic Of Lithuania in 1918

The article deals with the establishment of national states and formation of the state border between the Ukrainian National Republic and the Republic of Lithuania. In late 1917, a need to end the war and conclude a peace treaty was obvious, which resulted in the first negotiations between representatives of the Bolshevik government and Germany, joined by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. The Ukrainian National Republic also got a chance to become an actor of European politics and participated in the peace negotiations in Brest-Lytovsk. The system of the Brest-Lytovsk peace treaties legalized the separation between Russia and its national entities, recognized the independence of the Ukrainian National Republic as well as Lithuania and Latvia. The details of the negotiations remain unknown, but in the context of the establishment of relations with great powers and new nation-states, the Ukrainian-Lithuanian contacts were not in the foreground, although remained relevant. In the summer of 1918, Lithuania was preparing to become a full-fledged monarchy and the final establishment of state borders was postponed. In October 1918, the Ministry of Military Affairs of the Ukrainian State established a commission dealing with the issue of the border line between Ukraine and Lithuania. However, the plans were not meant to be realized due to the revolution in Germany, the anti-Hetman uprising in Ukraine, the restoration of the republic, the next wave of the Russian aggression against the newly formed states and the Polish invasion against Ukraine and Lithuania. Consequently, the western territories of the Ukrainian National Republic as well as the Lithuanian capital Vilnius with the Vilnius Region came under the control of Poland. Thus, the delineated Ukrainian-Lithuanian border remained on paper and on new maps of Europe. Keywords: Ukrainian-Lithuanian border, monarchy, revolution, peace negotiations in Brest-Lytovsk.

Development of food and nutrition sciences in the 100-year history of the National Institute of Hygiene in Poland

Issues related to nutrition and food safety in Poland are included in the hundred-year history of the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH), which exists since 1918. The first scientific institution in Poland devoted to nutrition after the First World War was the Department of Biochemistry and Hygiene of Nutrition created in 1923 in the National School of Hygiene operating at the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH), whose director was Dr. Ludwik Rajchman. This Department was headed since 1925 by Kazimierz Funk, an outstanding scholar, who had already gained international fame as a discoverer of vitamins, and at PZH he investigated the effects of poor nutrition on health. After departure of Kazimierz Funk from Poland, the issues related to nutrition were dealt with by Dr. Gustaw Szulc and Dr. Aleksander Szczygieł, who since 1938 was the head of the Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition Hygiene. In 1963, all issues related to nutrition were transferred from the National Institute of Hygiene (PZH) to the newly founded Institute of Food and Nutrition in Warsaw, whose director was Aleksander Szczygieł. Food safety issues went to the National Institute of Hygiene in 1935 after incorporating into its structure the State Department of Food and Consumers Goods operating in Warsaw since 1919. Thanks to this reorganization, National Institute of Hygiene became the headquarter for all State Departments of Food and Consumer Goods in Poland. As soon as in the third year of their activity (in 1921), the laboratories of the State Department of Food and Consumers Goods examined over 65,000 samples of food products, detecting adulterations, false labeling, harmful admixtures or spoiled products in 44% of cases. The State Departments of Food and Consumer Goods in 1952 were transformed into Sanitary-Epidemiological Stations and incorporated into the structures of the State Sanitary Inspection. National Institute of Hygiene obtained the status of a research institute whose tasks were besides the scientific activity, the postgraduate education of the personnel of this Inspection. After the Second World War, prof. Stanisław Krauze, who was appointed the head of the Department of Food Research and Articles of Common Use at the PZH in 1935, continued his mission. Prof. Stanisław Krauze was recognized as the founder of the scientific bases of food control in Poland, food sciences and the initiator of microbiological food research. Prof. Stanisław Krauze was the head of this Department of PZH until 1962. Another head of this Department, prof. dr h.c. Maksym Nikonorow, introduced research on pesticide residues, food monitoring studies, as well as toxicological testing using laboratory animals, opening a new quality in the assessment of food safety. After his retirement this Department was led by prof. Halina Mazur (1981-1990) and assoc. prof. Kazimierz Karłowski (1990-2010). Since 2011 dr Jacek Postupolski is a head of this Department, which in 2012 has changed its name to the Department of Food Safety. The scientific staff of this Department, besides conducting scientific research, service, and educational activities, acts as experts for the Minister of Health, the Minister of Agriculture, and other national authorities, and cooperates with the FAO/WHO, the European Commission and Food and Feed Safety Authority (EFSA). In the Department there are accredited laboratories serving as the National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) which cooperate with the European Union Reference Laboratories (EU-RLs).

Research activities in the field of tobacco control in Poland

Research activities in the field of tobacco control in Poland

Women on strike: mobilizing against reproductive injustice in Poland

ABSTRACTThe paper employs a lens of reproductive justice (RJ) to discuss the events of the 2016 mobilization against a total abortion ban proposal in Poland. By presenting the context of women’s rights in Poland, especially the abortion debates, we argue that the 2016 Women’s Strike showed that taking a stand for reproductive justice was countered by governmental actions. By using a case study approach, the paper analyzes the Strike as a tumultuous act of women’s solidarity while simultaneously assessing its implications for RJ issues. We discuss the aftermath and the socio-political reticence to acknowledge the complexities of women’s lives and reproductive choices. Further, we provide arguments for applying the RJ framework into discerning the notion of ideal citizens and gendered social control in Poland. This localized analysis has a global relevance by reflecting the impact of worldwide trends in women’s rights activism and RJ in the context of resurfacing nationalisms and populism.

EASTERN LATVIA IN THE GEOSPATIAL POETICS OF NATIONAL ROMATICISTS

The collected efforts of the national romanticists mark a longing for one’s own path within the Latvian cultural landscape, and emphasise the use and understanding of geography and space. The goal of this study is to ascertain – whether and how the created geo-spatiality of the national romanticists stands within the context of Eastern Latvia, which was administratively separated from the rest of the ethnographically collective territories, being a constitutive part of the Vitebsk Governorate. The organic tethering of separated regions was already torn in the 17th century, when Eastern Latvia remained under the control of Poland after the conquering of the collapsed remains of Livonia. Catholicism, idiosyncratic agricultural traditions, unprecedented development of language and writing – the peculiarities discerning Eastern Latvia from the coastal territories are justifiably multifarious. However, one must as well keep in mind the underlying similarities of east and west with the forming of the Latvian nation in the 19th century. The main topic of this paper is the geospatial poetics of the national romanticism, though for the sake of a broader historical context and understanding, it is prefaced by a chapter of “An Account of Associative Preconceptions and Histories of Eastern Latvia in Context of Baltic Provinces”, paying attention to the specific vernacular with which the Latvian landscape is described during the 19th century and closer inspection still to the administrative border between the Baltic provinces and the Governorate of Vitebsk, which holds the Eastern Latvian territories. In the second chapter – “Vitebsk-Latvian Identity from the Viewpoint of Latvian Nationalist Ideological Leaders” – reviews the pre-existing notions which are found in the writings of Krišjānis Valdemārs and Atis Kronvalds and reveals on the one hand a deep vocation of the destiny of the Vitebsk Latvians, though on the other – a somewhat simplified overview. The third chapter directly examines how these preconceived and associative ideas were produced in the many periodicals and publications by the various Latvian communities of the Baltic provinces. The most significant textual sources are travel notes, in which the spatial differences and also visually distinctive features in agricultural tradition are emphasized. The fourth chapter looks at the collectively written works of the national romanticists within the aspects of geospatial imagery, bringing out three levels – the motifs of rivers and lakes, motifs of mountains, alleys and fields, as well as the motif of ancient historical locations, which all together make the illusory mythos of Latvia, within which Eastern Latvia resides. Nevertheless, the geospatial contours of Latvia are only complete with the addition of Eastern Latvia’s local identity – Latgale – which colours the collective Latvian borders with unique geospatial impressions (imagery).

Tobacco smoking in Poland in the years from 2003 to 2014. Multi‑centre National Population Health Examination Survey (WOBASZ).

INTRODUCTION The reduction of tobacco smoking is a challenging problem of public health. OBJECTIVES The main purpose of this work was to evaluate the prevalence and tobacco use patterns in the adult population of Poles and its changes in a period between year 2003 and 2014. Furthermore, changes in the smoking addiction, the declared reasons for smoking as well as readiness and motivation to stop smoking has been assessed. PATIENTS AND METHODS Based on data from the Polish studies - WOBASZ and WOBASZ II, the analysis covered a population of 14576 persons from the 1st study (6906 men and 7670 women) and 5696 persons from the 2nd study (2578 men and 3118 women), aged 20 - 74. RESULTS According to the WOBASZ II study, in Poland 30% of men and 21% of women smoked, the shares being 9 and 4 % lower for men and women respectively in comparison with the WOBASZ (p<0.001). The average number of cigarettes smoked daily per smoker significantly decreased in the period of observation among men (from 17.9 to 15.8 cigarettes/day) and women (from 13.7 to 12.1). The percentage of never smoking men rose from 29.8% to 36.1% (p<0.0001). The proportion of never smoking women no changed. However, the percentage of those expressing unwillingness to quit tobacco smoking nearly doubled in WOBASZ II vs WOBASZ. CONCLUSIONS Although we found smoking rates in Poland have declined over the past decade, smoking remains prevalent among men and women. Therefore it is necessary to optimize the tobacco control in Poland including fiscal policy, counseling and tobacco addiction treatment, promotional and educational activities, with a special emphasis on the female population.

ПРАВОВІДНОСИНИ, СУДОУСТРІЙ, ЗЛОЧИНИ ТА ПОКАРАННЯ НА ЗАПОРОЗЬКІЙ СІЧІ

One of the decisive stages of development of the Ukrainian Cossack state is the creation in the second half of the XVI century of its forerunner – a special military-territorial political organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks – the Zaporizhian Sich. This Cossack stronghold, which was not a state in the full sense of this word, had many signs of statehood among which were: the existence of self-developed legal relations of justice, the system of crimes and punishment. These characteristic signs of Zaporizhian Sich are the subject of this article.In the context of this problem, the authors analysed the genesis of legal relations in the Zaporizhian Sich from the time of oral customary Cossack law to the appearance of the first self-written laws. The indicated laws were acted not only within the Zaporizhian Army but also in the territory under the control of Poland. The article also investigates the system of the judicial system in the Sich – from the court of the Palanka’s Colonel (where minor criminal and civil offenses were considered) to the highest court instance – the general Cossack Council, under whose jurisdiction were the most resonant cases. The subject of the authors’ research is also the system of crimes and punishment, which was aimed at the strict observance of the discipline and law and order of the military in the Cossack society.

Fifty years of potato pest control in Poland

The direction of changes that has been currently observed in treatments against Colorado potato beetle shows that new insecticides are safer for humans and the environment by reducing the dosage of active substances from 1200 g/ha of organochlorine hydrocarbons to 20–40 g/ha in new generations of products such as: pyrethroids, benzoylurea derivatives, neonicotinoids, phenylpyrazoles, carboxamides, organophosphorus, and antronilated diamides. Based on the data from 1977–2006, there was no significant difference in the protection against potato beetle, both in the number of treatments (from 1.2 to 1.5) and in the protected area (from 72 to 82%) of the potato crop in Poland. A recent study of the use of plant protection products in potato cultivation (insecticides) conducted in 2012 showed that the number of treatments varies from 1.0 to 2.0. Kierunek zmian, jaki obserwuje się obecnie w zwalczaniu stonki pokazuje, że nowe insektycydy są bezpieczniejsze dla ludzi i środowiska, poprzez zmniejszenie dawki substancji czynnych, od 1200 g/ha węglowodorów chloroorganicznych do 20–40 g/ha w nowych generacjach: pyretroidach, pochodnych benzoilomocznika, neonikotynoidach, fenylopirazolach, karboksamidach, fosforoorganicznych i antronilowanych diamidach. Na podstawie danych z lat 1977–2006 stwierdzono, że nie było istotnego zróżnicowania w ochronie przed stonką ziemniaczaną, zarówno w liczbie zabiegów (od 1,2 do 1,5), jak i chronionej powierzchni (od 72 do 82%) uprawy ziemniaka w Polsce. Ostatnie badania zużycia środków ochrony roślin w uprawie ziemniaka (insektycydy) przeprowadzone w 2012 roku wykazały liczbę zabiegów od 1,0 do 2,0.