Anopheline Mosquito Control Research Articles

Screening and field performance of powder-formulated insecticides on eave tube inserts against pyrethroid resistant Anopheles gambiae s.l.: an investigation into \u2018actives\u2019 prior to a randomized controlled trial in C\xf4te d\u2019Ivoire

BackgroundThe widespread emergence of insecticide resistance in African malaria vectors remains one of the main challenges facing control programmes. Electrostatic coating that uses polarity to bind insecticide particles is a new way of delivering insecticides to mosquitoes. Although previous tests demonstrated the resistance breaking potential of this application method, studies screening and investigating the residual efficacy of a broader range of insecticides are necessary.MethodsEleven insecticide powder formulations belonging to six insecticide classes (pyrethroid, carbamate, organophosphate, neonicotinoid, entomopathogenic fungus and boric acid) were initially screened for residual activity over 4 weeks against pyrethroid resistant Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) from the M’bé valley, central Côte d’Ivoire. Tests were performed using the eave tube assay that simulates the behavioural interaction between mosquitoes and insecticide-treated inserts. With the best performing insecticide, persistence was monitored over 12 months and the actual contact time lethal to mosquitoes was explored, using a range of transient exposure time (5 s, 30 s, 1 min up to 2 min) in the tube assays in laboratory. The mortality data were calibrated against overnight release-recapture data from enclosure around experimental huts incorporating treated inserts at the M’bé site. The natural recruitment rate of mosquitoes to the tube without insecticide treatment was assessed using fluorescent dust particles.ResultsAlthough most insecticides assayed during the initial screening induced significant mortality (45–100%) of pyrethroid resistant An. gambiae during the first 2 weeks, only 10% beta-cyfluthrin retained high residual efficacy, killing 100% of An. gambiae during the first month and > 80% over 8 subsequent months. Transient exposure for 5 s of mosquitoes to 10% beta-cyfluthrin produced 56% mortality, with an increase to 98% when contact time was extended to 2 min (P = 0.001). In the experimental hut enclosures, mortality of An. gambiae with 10% beta-cyfluthrin treated inserts was 55% compared to similar rate (44%) of mosquitoes that contacted the inserts treated with fluorescent dusts. This suggests that all host-seeking female mosquitoes that contacted beta-cyfluthrin treated inserts during host-seeking were killed.ConclusionThe eave tube technology is a novel malaria control approach which combines house proofing and targeted control of anopheline mosquitoes using insecticide treated inserts. Beta-cyfluthrin showed great promise for providing prolonged control of pyrethroid resistant An. gambiae and has potential to be deployed year-round in areas where malaria parasites are transmitted by highly pyrethroid resistant An. gambiae across sub-Saharan Africa.

Development of an autodissemination strategy for the deployment of novel control agents targeting the common malaria mosquito, Anopheles quadrimaculatus say (Diptera: Culicidae)

BackgroundThe reduced efficacy of current Anopheline mosquito control methods underscores the need to develop new methods of control that exploit unique target sites and/or utilizes novel deployment methods. Autodissemination methodologies using insect growth regulators (IGRs) is growing in interest and has been shown to be effective at controlling Aedes mosquitoes in semi-field and field environments, yet little information exists for Anopheline mosquitoes. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that female-driven autodissemination of an IGR combined with a new mechanism of action insecticide (Kir channel inhibitor) could be employed to reduce Anopheline populations.MethodologyWe studied the ability of three IGRs to be transferred to the larval habitat during oviposition in laboratory and semi-field environments. Adult mosquitoes were exposed to the chemicals for 4 hours immediately after blood feeding and efficacy was tested using classical methodologies, including adult emergence inhibition and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). A complete autodissemination design was tested in a semi-field environment.Principal findingsLarval survivability and adult emergence were significantly reduced in habitats that were visited by novaluron treated adults, but no statistical differences were observed with pyriproxyfen or triflumuron. These data suggested novaluron, but not pyriproxyfen or triflumuron, was horizontally transferred from the adult mosquito to the larval habitat during oviposition. HPLC studies supported the toxicity data and showed that novaluron was present in the majority of larval habitats, suggesting that novaluron can be horizontally transferred by Anopheles quadrimaculatus. Importantly, the combination of novaluron and the Kir channel inhibitor, VU041, was capable of reducing adult and larval populations in semi-field environments.ConclusionsNovaluron can be transferred to the adult at a greater efficacy and/or is not degraded as quickly during the gonotropic cycle when compared to pyriproxyfen or triflumuron. Pending field confirmation, autodissemination approaches with novaluron may be a suitable tool to manage Anopheles populations.

Physico-chemical and biological characterization of anopheline mosquito larval habitats (Diptera: Culicidae): implications for malaria control

BackgroundA fundamental understanding of the spatial distribution and ecology of mosquito larvae is essential for effective vector control intervention strategies. In this study, data-driven decision tree models, generalized linear models and ordination analysis were used to identify the most important biotic and abiotic factors that affect the occurrence and abundance of mosquito larvae in Southwest Ethiopia.MethodsIn total, 220 samples were taken at 180 sampling locations during the years 2010 and 2012. Sampling sites were characterized based on physical, chemical and biological attributes. The predictive performance of decision tree models was evaluated based on correctly classified instances (CCI), Cohen’s kappa statistic (κ) and the determination coefficient (R2). A conditional analysis was performed on the regression tree models to test the relation between key environmental and biological parameters and the abundance of mosquito larvae.ResultsThe decision tree model developed for anopheline larvae showed a good model performance (CCI = 84 ± 2%, and κ = 0.66 ± 0.04), indicating that the genus has clear habitat requirements. Anopheline mosquito larvae showed a widespread distribution and especially occurred in small human-made aquatic habitats. Water temperature, canopy cover, emergent vegetation cover, and presence of predators and competitors were found to be the main variables determining the abundance and distribution of anopheline larvae. In contrast, anopheline mosquito larvae were found to be less prominently present in permanent larval habitats. This could be attributed to the high abundance and diversity of natural predators and competitors suppressing the mosquito population densities.ConclusionsThe findings of this study suggest that targeting smaller human-made aquatic habitats could result in effective larval control of anopheline mosquitoes in the study area. Controlling the occurrence of mosquito larvae via drainage of permanent wetlands may not be a good management strategy as it negatively affects the occurrence and abundance of mosquito predators and competitors and promotes an increase in anopheline population densities.

Mosquito larval source management for controlling malaria.

Malaria is an important cause of illness and death in people living in many parts of the world, especially sub-Saharan Africa.Long-lasting insecticide treated bed nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) reduce malaria transmission by targeting the adult mosquito vector and are key components of malaria control programmes. However, mosquito numbers may also be reducedby larval source management (LSM), which targetsmosquito larvae as they mature in aquatic habitats. This is conducted by permanently or temporarily reducing the availability of larval habitats (habitat modification and habitat manipulation), orby adding substancesto standing waterthat either kill or inhibit the development of larvae (larviciding). To evaluate the effectiveness of mosquito LSM for preventing malaria. We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE; EMBASE; CABS Abstracts; and LILACS up to 24 October 2012.We handsearched the Tropical Diseases Bulletin from 1900 to 2010, the archives of the World Health Organization (up to 11 February 2011), and the literature database of the Armed Forces Pest Management Board (up to 2 March 2011). We also contacted colleagues in the field for relevant articles. We included cluster randomized controlled trials (cluster-RCTs), controlled before-and-after trials with at least one year of baseline data, and randomized cross-over trials that compared LSM with no LSM for malaria control. We excluded trials that evaluated biological control of anopheline mosquitoes with larvivorous fish. At least two authors assessed each trial for eligibility. We extracted data and at least two authors independently determined the risk of bias in the included studies. We resolved all disagreements through discussion with a third author. We analyzed the data using Review Manager 5 software. We included 13 studies; four cluster-RCTs, eight controlled before-and-after trials, and one randomized cross-over trial. The included studies evaluated habitat modification (one study), habitat modification with larviciding (two studies), habitat manipulation (one study), habitat manipulation plus larviciding (two studies), or larviciding alone (seven studies) in a wide variety of habitats and countries. Malaria incidenceIn two cluster-RCTs undertaken in Sri Lanka, larviciding of abandoned mines, streams, irrigation ditches, and rice paddies reduced malaria incidence by around three-quarters compared to the control (RR 0.26, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.31, 20,124 participants, two trials, moderate quality evidence). In three controlled before-and-after trials in urban and rural India and rural Kenya, results were inconsistent (98,233 participants, three trials, very low quality evidence). In one trial in urban India, the removal of domestic water containers together with weekly larviciding of canals and stagnant pools reduced malaria incidence by three quarters. In one trial in rural India and one trial in rural Kenya, malaria incidence was higher at baseline in intervention areas than in controls. However dam construction in India, and larviciding of streams and swamps in Kenya, reduced malaria incidence to levels similar to the control areas. In one additional randomized cross-over trial in the flood plains of the Gambia River, where larval habitats were extensive and ill-defined, larviciding by ground teams did not result in a statistically significant reduction in malaria incidence (2039 participants, one trial). Parasite prevalenceIn one cluster-RCT from Sri Lanka, larviciding reduced parasite prevalence by almost 90% (RR 0.11, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.22, 2963 participants, one trial, moderate quality evidence). In five controlled before-and-after trials in Greece, India, the Philippines, and Tanzania, LSM resulted in an average reduction in parasite prevalence of around two-thirds (RR 0.32, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.55, 8041 participants, five trials, moderate quality evidence). The interventions in these five trials included dam construction to reduce larval habitats, flushing of streams, removal of domestic water containers, and larviciding. In the randomized cross-over trial in the flood plains of the Gambia River, larviciding by ground teams did not significantly reduce parasite prevalence (2039 participants, one trial). In Africa and Asia, LSM is another policy option, alongside LLINs and IRS, for reducing malaria morbidity in both urban and rural areas where a sufficient proportion of larval habitats can be targeted. Further research is needed to evaluate whether LSM is appropriate or feasible in parts of rural Africa where larval habitats are more extensive.

Efficiency Evaluation of Nozawa-Style Black Light Trap for Control of Anopheline Mosquitoes

House-residual spraying and insecticide-treated bed nets have achieved some success in controlling anthropophilic and endophagic vectors. However, these methods have relatively low efficacy in Korea because Anopheles sinensis, the primary malaria vector, is highly zoophilic and exophilic. So, we focused our vector control efforts within livestock enclosures using ultraviolet black light traps as a mechanical control measure. We found that black light traps captured significantly more mosquitoes at 2 and 2.5 m above the ground (P < 0.05). We also evaluated the effectiveness of trap spacing within the livestock enclosure. In general, traps spaced between 4 and 7 m apart captured mosquitoes more efficiently than those spaced closer together (P > 0.05). Based on these findings, we concluded that each black light trap in the livestock enclosures killed 7,586 female mosquitoes per trap per night during the peak mosquito season (July-August). In May-August 2003, additional concurrent field trials were conducted in Ganghwa county. We got 74.9% reduction (P < 0.05) of An. sinensis in human dwellings and 61.5% reduction (P > 0.05) in the livestock enclosures. The black light trap operation in the livestock enclosures proved to be an effective control method and should be incorporated into existing control strategies in developed countries.

Costs and effectiveness of application of Poecilia reticulata (guppy) and temephos in anopheline mosquito control in river basins below the major dams of Sri Lanka

In this study we examined the costs and effectiveness of using larvivorous fish, Poecilia reticulata, and a chemical larvicide, temephos, in anopheline mosquito control in the riverbeds below the major dams in Sri Lanka. Five riverbeds below the dams, namely Laxapana, Kotmale 1, Kotmale 2, Nilambe, Rantembe and Victoria, were selected. Riverbed pools in Laxapana and Kotmale 1 were treated with P. reticulata; Rantembe and Victoria were treated with temephos; and Kotmale 2 and Nilambe were kept as controls. In each area, the anopheline larval density, before and after application of fish/temephos, was estimated. The cost of application of fish/temephos was estimated by activities involved for each treatment. After intervention, there was a significant reduction in anopheline larval density in the fish-treated areas compared with the temephos-treated and control areas. Application of P. reticulata was 2.67 times less costly than that of temephos. The cost of fish application can be further reduced if the community is involved in the application.

Larvivorous Potential of the Guppy, Poecilia reticulata, in Anopheline Mosquito Control in Riverbed Pools Below the Kotmale Dam, Sri Lanka

The larvivorous potential of Poecilia reticulata was studied in the laboratory and in the field. In the laboratory, the number of anopheline larvae consumed per fish per day and the number of larvae in fecal matter per fish were determined. In the field study, 29 of 60 selected riverbed pools in Kotmale oya, below the Kotmale dam, were stocked with P reticulata, whereas the rest served as controls. Anopheline larval surveys were carried out starting from 1 day prior to stocking of fish and on selected days subsequently. P. reticulata consumed an average of 117 +/- 32.33 larvae per fish per day. Fecal matter of P. reticulata contained an average of 2.7 +/- 2.68 larvae per fish . There was a significant reduction in the number of pools positive for anopheline larvae (P < .001) after stocking fish and the number of larvae per pool (P < .001) and per 100 dips (P < .001) as compared with controls.

Larvivorous Potential of Fish Species Found in River Bed Pools Below the Major Dams in Sri Lanka

Malaria in Sri Lanka is closely associated with the river systems in the country. Construction of major dams across rivers has resulted in year-round pooling and anopheline mosquito breeding in river beds below the dams. This study was carried out to determine the larvivorous activity of fish found in river bed pools below the dams to identify the potential fish species for anopheline larval control in these areas. Fish species in five river beds below the dams, namely, Laxapana, Kotmale, Nilambe, Victoria, and Rantembe, were identified in June 2000. The larvivorous potential of the 12 fish species collected was determined in the laboratory based on the number of larvae consumed per fish within 10 min and an hour. Danio malabaricus Jerdon, Oreochromis mossambicus Peters, Oreochromis niloticus L., and Poecilia reticulata Peters consumed nine or more larvae per fish within 10 min. Aplocheilus dayi Steindachner and Rasbora daniconius Hamilton consumed nine and eight larvae, respectively, within 1 h. O. mossambicus, O. niloticus, and P. reticulata consumed 10 larvae per fish within 10 min. Despite some species having a high larvivorous potential in the laboratory, field studies are required to determine the feasibility of using these fish for anopheline mosquito control in the river bed pools below the dams.

Larvivorous Potential of Fish Species Found in River Bed Pools Below the Major Dams in Sri Lanka

Malaria in Sri Lanka is closely associated with the river systems in the country. Construction of major dams across rivers has resulted in year-round pooling and anopheline mosquito breeding in river beds below the dams. This study was carried out to determine the larvivorous activity of fish found in river bed pools below the dams to identify the potential fish species for anopheline larval control in these areas. Fish species in five river beds below the dams, namely, Laxapana, Kotmale, Nilambe, Victoria, and Rantembe, were identified in June 2000. The larvivorous potential of the 12 fish species collected was determined in the laboratory based on the number of larvae consumed per fish within 10 min and an hour. Danio malabaricus Jerdon, Oreochromis mossambicus Peters, Oreochromis niloticus L., and Poecilia reticulata Peters consumed nine or more larvae per fish within 10 min. Aplocheilus dayi Steindachner and Rasbora daniconius Hamilton consumed nine and eight larvae, respectively, within 1 h. O. mossambicus, O. niloticus, and P. reticulata consumed 10 larvae per fish within 10 min. Despite some species having a high larvivorous potential in the laboratory, field studies are required to determine the feasibility of using these fish for anopheline mosquito control in the river bed pools below the dams.

Use of an electrostatic sprayer for control of anopheline mosquitoes

The Electrodyn sprayer was compared with a compression sprayer (Hudson X-pert) for residual application of cypermethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, to control the malaria vectors Anopheles arabiensis Patton and An. funestus Giles in experimental huts at Magugu in Tanzania. The time taken for hut spraying, 2-2.5 min per hut, was similar for both types of sprayer. Two or three huts were treated internally with cypermethrin at 40 or 80 mg a.i./m2 using Electrodyn formulation for comparison with 80 mg a.i./m2 using wettable powder formulation. Each of the twelve huts (including five untreated controls) was fitted with window exit traps and either louvre or verandah traps for mosquito sampling. The Electrodyn sprayer was fitted with a pair of elbowed deflectrodes to direct the positively charged spray droplets onto walls and ceiling. All treatments gave 94-100% mortality-rates of indoor-resting anophelines throughout the evaluation period of 11 weeks post-spray. Reductions of An.arabiensis and An.funestus females by 10-42% and 62-91%, respectively, in rooms and by 72% and 51% in exit traps indicated that cypermethrin deterred mosquitoes from entering the huts. Overall mortality-rates of mosquitoes were 66% of both species in huts treated with 40 mg/m2 Electrodyn, 43% An.funestus and 71% An.arabiensis due to 80 mg/m2 Electrodyn formulation and 49% An.funestus and 64% An.arabiensis due to 80 mg/m2 WP formulation (no significant differences). It is concluded that the Electrodyn sprayer with deflectrodes is a convenient and effective means of residual house-spraying with pyrethroid insecticide for malaria vector control.

The action of lecithin monolayers on mosquitoes. III. Studies in irrigated rice-fields in Kenya.

The feasibility of using monolayers of lecithin to control the larvae and pupae of anopheline mosquitoes was investigated in irrigated rice fields in Kenya.Solutions of soya lecithin in kerosene spread rapidly over the breeding sites but full surface pressure (measured with a Wilhelmy balance) was attained only slowly. Tests with larvae confirmed that patches of low surface pressure persisted for many hours. The lecithin monolayer was disrupted by light breeze (5–10 km per hour) and disappeared more rapidly by day than at night. Dissolved oxygen levels were only low enough for larvicidal action for about ten hours of the night. Five litres of 50% lecithin solution per hectare persisted at full pressure for 38–45 hours and gave about 70% and 90% reduction of Anopheles gambiae s.l. larvae and pupae respectively. At lower dosages the treatment was much less effective. Analysis of covariance confirmed that the lecithin was active against larvae for about two days. Calculation of the k exponent of the negative binomial distribution indicated that the degree of aggregation of larvae was increased by the treatment. This is probably because surviving larvae congregate in patches of low surface pressure. Most non-target organisms survived the treatment.It is concluded that in certain circumstances lecithin might be useful for the control of anopheline mosquitoes if applied in relatively large quantities.

Control of Arthropods of Medical and Veterinary Importance

This chapter deals with current and developing methods and materials for the control of arthropods of medical and veterinary importance. Some of these are parasites in their own right, while others act chiefly as vectors of one or several diseases. The control measures considered concern mainly the use of insecticides, but it cannot be stressed too strongly that good hygiene (or good animal husbandry) is a pre-requisite. The use of pesticidal chemicals is an integral part of good hygiene, but is not a substitute. Indiscriminate use of insecticides may actually unmask formerly unrecognized pests, themselves tolerant to the chemicals, but previously held in check by predatory insects. The control of anophelines and culicines is considered separately. The control of anopheline mosquitoes is inextricably bound up with programs for the control of malaria so that it is convenient to begin with a brief consideration of the present status of eradication of this disease. Chemical control of Aedes and Cirlex is by larviciding or by treating resting places of the adults with residual insecticides. Suitable larvicides include suspensions, solutions and granules of DDT, dieldrin, malathion, fenthion, tetrachlorvinphos (Gardona), difenphos or Dursban. Insecticides are screened in accordance with a seven-stage evaluation scheme organized by the World Health Organization. Control measures directed against adult flies include residual and space spraying inside farm buildings and the use of baits and impregnated cords. Tests for the investigation of suspected insecticide resistance is described. The chapter discusses the development of modern insecticides with notes of some quite controversial moves, such as the withdrawal of dieldrin from most of its former veterinary uses. Mechanisms of insecticide action are being examined with increasing interest and with vastly improved physical and chemical micro-techniques.

Methods for the Determination of Ph and Salinity as Field Tests in the Control of Anopheline Mosquitoes

Methods for the Determination of Ph and Salinity as Field Tests in the Control of Anopheline Mosquitoes

An Analysis of Some of California's Major Entomological Problems

Because of the great variety of crops grown commercially in California, the economic entomologist must specialize to a large degree in order best to serve. There is much waste and injury in the use of insecticides when a proper scientific basis for action is lacking. In this, both the farmer and the entomologist are often at fault. An unbiased investigation of the fundamental principles of insect control will in some instances at least, reveal astonishing discrepancies in our present methods of procedure. Intensive laboratory experiments coupled with carefully planned field investigations are essential. Thus experiments with newly hatched codling moth larvae which attack both the apple and English walnut in California, indicate that the efficacy of lead arsenate in protecting apples in particular against side entrances and stings has been greatly overestimated. Greater attention to orchard and packing house sanitation is urged. With what appears to be a gradual development of resistance of the black scale of oranges to hyrocyanic acid gas and the well known resistance of the citrus red spiders to the same gas, oil sprays are now being used quite extensively in the citrus areas of California. A strong tendency to use oil sprays against red spiders on prunes is evident in many parts. The use of oil sprays presents many difficult problems such as possible injury to the tree and discoloration of the fruit, but much trouble has already been obviated by the development of a quick breaking emulsion of highly refined lubricating oils. The large amount of damage done by the garden centipede to asparagus and that of certain soil infesting nematodes has created a strong demand for soil fumigants. It has been found, however, that the damage to asparagus done by the garden centipede can be entirely overcome by proper flooding where that is possible. On the other hand, an effective soil fumigant is now available in the xanthates which are valuable when properly employed on account of the decomposition product, carbon disulfide. Sugar beets, one of the pioneer crops of California, have been threatened for some years by a disease known as curly-top which is carried by a very small leafhopper. The control of this insect presents much difficulty on account of its migratory habits. Cotton is one of the newer crops of California but is already valued at over $10,000,000. To keep this crop free from the pests so prevalent in the South is one of our problems, and to prevent native insects from transferring their affections from wild vegetation to this valuable crop is another. California beekeepers have long disagreed as to the nectar value of the California buckeye. It is now known that when severe droughts curtail the nectar possibilities of other plants and bees are compelled to use the buckeye alone, poisoning of the bees is pretty sure to follow, while mixed with nectar from other plants, that of the buckeye is harmless. Similar climatic peculiarities limit the use of top minnows (Gambusia) in anopheline mosquito control. Great differences in topography within a short distance, likewise ocean and desert influences within a narrow range, greatly influence climate and make it dangerous to generalize in control recommendations.