Contextual Threat Research Articles

The association between maternal and child posttraumatic stress symptoms among families living in southern Israel: The buffering role of maternal executive functions.

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a prolonged stress and anxiety response that occurs after exposure to a traumatic event. Research shows that both parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are correlated but parental executive functions (EFs) could buffer this link. EFs refers to a group of high-level cognitive processes that enable self-regulation of thoughts and actions to achieve goal-directed behaviours and can be of importance for both positive parenting interactions and effective coping skills for PTSS. Our study aimed to (1) examine the link between maternal and child PTSS and the moderating role of varying degrees of exposure to severe security threats context, and (2) to identify the moderating role of maternal EFs in this interaction, among families living in southern Israel. Our sample included 131 mothers in their second pregnancy and their firstborn children. Mothers performed computerised tasks to assess their EFs and they reported on their own and their child's PTSS. Results revealed a positive correlation between maternal PTSS and child PTSS. However, the link between maternal and child PTSS was moderated by maternal working memory updating abilities and threat context severity. Among mothers with lower updating capacities, the association between maternal and child symptoms was stronger under higher threat contexts; conversely, among mothers with higher maternal updating abilities, threat context did not modulate the link between maternal and child PTSS, suggesting a stress-buffering effect. Our study contributes to the growing literature on the significant role of parental EFs in the context of parent-child interactions.

Higher-order interactions between hippocampal CA1 neurons are disrupted in amnestic mice.

Across systems, higher-order interactions between components govern emergent dynamics. Here we tested whether contextual threat memory retrieval in mice relies on higher-order interactions between dorsal CA1 hippocampal neurons requiring learning-induced dendritic spine plasticity. We compared population-level Ca2+ transients as wild-type mice (with intact learning-induced spine plasticity and memory) and amnestic mice (TgCRND8 mice with high levels of amyloid-β and deficits in learning-induced spine plasticity and memory) were tested for memory. Using machine-learning classifiers with different capacities to use input data with complex interactions, our findings indicate complex neuronal interactions in the memory representation of wild-type, but not amnestic, mice. Moreover, a peptide that partially restored learning-induced spine plasticity also restored the statistical complexity of the memory representation and memory behavior in Tg mice. These findings provide a previously missing bridge between levels of analysis in memory research, linking receptors, spines, higher-order neuronal dynamics and behavior.

Aversive contexts enhance defensive responses to conditioned threat.

The ability to flexibly transition between defensive states is crucial for adaptive responding in life-threatening situations. Potentially threatening situations typically induce a sustained feeling of apprehension in association with hypervigilance, while acute threat is usually characterized by an intense and transient response to cope with the imminent danger. While potential and acute threat states have traditionally been viewed as mutually exclusive, this distinction is being challenged by a growing body of evidence suggesting a more complex interplay during simultaneous activation of these states. However, the interaction between potential and acute threat on a psychophysiological level remains elusive. To fill this gap, 94 healthy individuals participated in one of two contextual fear-conditioning paradigms. In both paradigms, a differential fear-learning phase was conducted, followed by a test phase in which the conditioned stimuli were presented in front of either conditioned or inherently aversive contextual images compared to neutral contexts. To capture defensive responses, we recorded subjective (threat and expectancy ratings) and physiological (electrodermal and cardiovascular) activity to the conditioned stimuli as a function of contextual threat. Besides indices of successful fear conditioning, our results revealed stronger threat and unconditioned stimulus expectancy ratings, cardiac deceleration, and skin conductance responses for threat and safety cues presented in inherently aversive compared to neutral contexts. Conditioned contexts had less impact on physiological responses to threat and safety cues than inherently aversive contexts. These findings provide new insights into the additive nature of defensive responses to fear cues and situations of contextual threat.

Passion for guns and beliefs in a dangerous world: An examination of defensive gun ownership.

This research examines the notion of defensive gun ownership using the Dualistic Model of Passion. We hypothesized that an obsessive (vs. harmonious) passion for guns would be associated with a belief in a dangerous world (BDW). We expected this relationship to intensify in threatening contexts, leading to a more expansive view on defensive gun ownership. We tested this hypothesis across three threat contexts: a gun-control message (Study 1, N = 342), a live shooting simulation (Study 2, N = 398), and the aftermath of the Christchurch mass shootings (Study 3, N = 314). In the experimental Study 1, exposure to a gun-control message increased the intention to purchase guns among those with an obsessive passion (OP) for guns. Study 2 revealed that BDW mediated the relationship between OP and assertive modes of protection, the desire to purchase high-stopping-power guns, and anti-Black racial bias in a shooting task. Study 3 showed that knowledge of the Christchurch attack intensified the link between OP and BDW, leading to increased support for gun access, a willingness to act as a citizen-protector, and prejudice against Muslims. Comprehending these dynamics can assist policymakers in crafting messaging campaigns for firearm regulation and public safety measures that are more effective.

Fleshing Out the Ways Masculinity Threat and Traditional Masculinity Ideology Relate to Meat-Eating and Environmental Attitudes in Australian Men

Meat consumption needs to be reduced to limit climate change but achieving this requires understanding the drivers of meat consumption. In this study, we investigated two potential drivers—a contextual threat to masculinity and the stable individual difference of masculine ideology—and how they predict meat-eating intentions, attitudes, and environmentalism. Employing a sample of 375 Australian men, a population known for its high meat consumption, we did not find support that a contextual threat to men’s masculinity increased pro-meat attitudes or intentions. Instead, we found that prevailing views about masculine ideology significantly predicted meat-related attitudes and intentions, with avoidance of femininity associated with lower avoidance of meat and lower intentions to eat clean meat, and the endorsement of male dominance tied to lower pro-environmental responding. Our findings suggest that situational threats to masculinity may not robustly affect meat consumption intentions and highlight the importance of more stable individual differences in the conception of the male gender identity in maintaining men’s high meat consumption.

Unpredictable threat increases early event-related potential amplitudes and cardiac acceleration: A brain-heart coupling study.

In the face of unpredictable threat, rapid processing of external events and behavioral mobilization through early psychophysiological responses are crucial for survival. While unpredictable threat generally enhances early processing, it would seem adaptive to particularly increase sensitivity for unexpected events as they may signal danger. To examine this possibility, n = 77 participants performed an auditory oddball paradigm and received unpredictable shocks in threat but not in safe contexts while a stream of frequent (standard) and infrequent (deviant) tones was presented. We assessed event-related potentials (ERP), heart period (HP), and time-lagged within-subject correlations of single-trial EEG and HP (cardio-EEG covariance tracing, CECT) time-locked to the tones. N1 and P2 ERP amplitudes were generally enhanced under threat. The P3 amplitude was enhanced to deviants versus standards and this effect was reduced in the threat condition. Regarding HP, both threat versus safe and unexpected versus expected tones led to stronger cardiac acceleration, suggesting separate effects of threat and stimulus expectancy on HP. Finally, CECTs revealed two correlation clusters, indicating that single-trial EEG magnitudes in the N1/P2 and P3 time-windows predicted subsequent cardiac acceleration. The current results show that an unpredictable threat context enhances N1 and P2 amplitudes and cardiac acceleration to benign auditory stimuli. They further suggest separable cortical correlates of different effects on cardiac activity: an early N1/P2 correlate associated with threat-effects on HP and a later P3 correlate associated with expectedness-effects. Finally, the results indicate that unpredictable threat attenuates rather than enhances the processing of unexpected benign events during the P3 latency.

Excitability mediates allocation of pre-configured ensembles to a hippocampal engram supporting contextual conditioned threat in mice

Little is understood about how engrams, sparse groups of neurons that store memories, are formed endogenously. Here, we combined calcium imaging, activity tagging, and optogenetics to examine the role of neuronal excitability and pre-existing functional connectivity on the allocation of mouse cornu ammonis area 1 (CA1) hippocampal neurons to an engram ensemble supporting a contextual threat memory. Engram neurons (high activity during recall or TRAP2-tagged during training) were more active than non-engram neurons 3h (but not 24h to 5days) before training. Consistent with this, optogenetically inhibiting scFLARE2-tagged neurons active in homecage 3 h, but not 24 h, before conditioning disrupted memory retrieval, indicating that neurons with higher pre-training excitability were allocated to the engram. We also observed stable pre-configured functionally connected sub-ensembles of neurons whose activity cycled over days. Sub-ensembles that were more active before training were allocated to the engram, and their functional connectivity increased at training. Therefore, both neuronal excitability and pre-configured functional connectivity mediate allocation to an engram ensemble.

Decoding context memories for threat in large-scale neural networks.

Humans are often tasked with determining the degree to which a given situation poses threat. Salient cues present during prior events help bring online memories for context, which plays an informative role in this process. However, it is relatively unknown whether and how individuals use features of the environment to retrieve context memories for threat, enabling accurate inferences about the current level of danger/threat (i.e. retrieve appropriate memory) when there is a degree of ambiguity surrounding the present context. We leveraged computational neuroscience approaches (i.e. independent component analysis and multivariate pattern analyses) to decode large-scale neural network activity patterns engaged during learning and inferring threat context during a novel functional magnetic resonance imaging task. Here, we report that individuals accurately infer threat contexts under ambiguous conditions through neural reinstatement of large-scale network activity patterns (specifically striatum, salience, and frontoparietal networks) that track the signal value of environmental cues, which, in turn, allows reinstatement of a mental representation, primarily within a ventral visual network, of the previously learned threat context. These results provide novel insight into distinct, but overlapping, neural mechanisms by which individuals may utilize prior learning to effectively make decisions about ambiguous threat-related contexts as they navigate the environment.

Everyday emotion, naturalistic life stress, and the prospective prediction of adolescent depression

ABSTRACT Background and objectives Increasing research underscores low positive emotion (PE) as a vital component of depression risk in adolescence. Theory also suggests that PE contributes to adaptive coping. However, it is unclear whether naturalistic experiences of emotions contribute to long-term depression risk, or whether daily PE levels equip adolescents to cope with later naturalistic stressors, reducing risk for depression. The current study examines whether PE (and negative emotion [NE]) assessed via ecological momentary assessment (EMA) (a) predict prospective increases in depression, and (b) moderate the association between later life stressors and depression. Design Longitudinal study of community-recruited adolescents, with EMA at baseline. Method Adolescents (n = 232) completed contextual threat life stress interviews, interview and self-report measures of depression at baseline and 1.5 year follow-up. At baseline, they completed a seven-day EMA of emotion. Results Preregistered analyses showed that daily NE, but not PE, predicted increased depression over time and moderated the association between interpersonal episodic stress and self-reported depression. Conclusions Results did not support daily PE as a buffer against depressogenic effects of life stress, but point to daily NE as a marker of depression risk.

High-Anxious People Generalize Costly Pain-Related Avoidance Behavior More to Novel Safe Contexts Compared to Low-Anxious People

Pain-related avoidance is adaptive when there is a bodily threat, but when it generalizes to safe movements/situations, it may become disabling. Both subclinical anxiety—a vulnerability marker for chronic pain—and chronic pain are associated with excessive fear generalization to safe stimuli/situations. Previous research focused mainly on passive fear correlates (psychophysiological arousal and self-reports) leaving avoidance behavior poorly understood. Therefore, we tested whether high-anxious individuals generalize their pain-related avoidance behavior more to novel, safe contexts than low-anxious people. In a robotic-arm-reaching task, both groups (low vs high trait anxiety) performed 1 of 3 movements to reach a target. In the threat context (black background), a painful stimulus could be partly/completely prevented by performing more effortful trajectories (longer and more force needed); in the safe context (white background), no pain occurred. Generalization of avoidance was tested in 2 novel contexts (light/dark gray backgrounds). We assessed pain expectancy, pain-related fear, startle eyeblink responses for all trajectories, and avoidance behavior (ie, maximal deviation from shortest trajectory). Results indicated that differential fear and expectancy selectively generalized to the novel context resembling the original threat context in both groups. Interestingly and in contrast with the verbal reports, high-anxious participants avoided more in the novel context resembling the original safe context, but not in the 1 resembling the threat context. No generalization emerged in the startle data. Because excessive pain-related avoidance specifically may cause withdrawal from daily life activities, these findings suggest that high-anxious individuals may be vulnerable to developing chronic pain disability. PerspectiveThis paper shows that high-anxious people do not overgeneralize pain-related fear and pain expectancy learned in a threat context more to novel, safe contexts than low-anxious individuals, but that they do avoid more in those contexts. These findings suggest that high-anxious individuals may be vulnerable to developing chronic pain disability.

Incidental learning of faces during threat: No evidence for enhanced physiological responses to former threat identities

Remembering an unfamiliar person and the contextual conditions of that encounter is important for adaptive future behavior, especially in a potentially dangerous situation. Initiating defensive behavior in the presence of former dangerous circumstances can be crucial. Recent studies showed selective electrocortical processing of faces that were previously seen in a threat context compared to a safety context, however, this was not reflected in conscious recognition performance. Here, we investigated whether previously seen threat-faces, that could not be remembered, were capable to activate defensive psychophysiological response systems. During an encoding phase, 50 participants with low to moderate levels of anxiety viewed 40 face pictures with neutral expressions (6 s each), without an explicit learning instruction (incidental learning task). Each half of the faces were presented with contextual background colors that signaled either threat-of-shock or safety. In the recognition phase, all old and additional new faces (total of 60) were presented intermixed without context information. Participants had to decide whether a face was new or had been presented previously in a threatening or a safe context. Results show moderate face recognition independent of context conditions. Startle reflex and skin conductance responses (SCR) were more pronounced for threat compared to safety during encoding. For SCR, this differentiation was enhanced with higher levels of depression and anxiety. There were no differential startle reflex or SCR effects during recognition. From a clinical perspective, these findings do not support the notion that perceptual biases and physiological arousal directly relate to threat-associated identity recognition deficits in healthy and clinical participants with anxiety and trauma-related disorders.

How do landscape and life history traits contribute to the threat context of Brazilian primates?

AbstractBrazilian primates differ regarding landscape characteristics within their ranges (e.g. habitat availability) and life‐history traits (e.g. body size). These landscape and life history attributes may be related to extinction risk. Here, we verified how such attributes correlate with primate threat categories. We considered 124 Brazilian primates based on the 2014 Brazilian list of threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable) and non‐threatened (Least Concern and Near Threatened) species. We then characterized their landscape (i.e. habitat availability, habitat loss and fragmentation, indigenous lands, roads, urban areas, deforestation arch) and life‐history attributes (i.e. body weight, gestation length and generation time), which together make up the threat context for each threat category. We compared threat categories to identify differences in such attributes, considering biome (Atlantic Forest, Amazon, Caatinga and Cerrado) as a factor and testing for phylogenetic effect. We investigated the attributes responsible for group characterization for specific threats and binary threatened/non‐threatened categories. We show that life history and landscape attributes differ in the biomes. However, only landscape features varied across biomes. In the Amazon, the threatened categories reached the highest level of habitat loss in the last 30 years, while in the Atlantic Forest, the landscape of threatened species had the highest proportions of roads and urban areas. Most threatened species landscapes in the Caatinga and Cerrado were highly fragmented. We found a positive link between human impacts and extinction risk in the Amazon. In the other biomes, anthropogenic landscape characteristics were associated with threatened and non‐threatened species. Threatened species tended to have large bodies and a slow life history, regardless of the biome. The more closely related the species, the more similar the traits. We suggest considering biomes and threat categories together with specific landscape and life history attributes to distinguish primate threat context for species conservation priority‐setting.

The interactive effects of different facets of threat uncertainty and cognitive load in shaping fear and anxiety responses.

A large body of research indicates that exaggerated response to uncertainty of a future threat is at the core of anxiety and related disorders, underscoring the need for a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Although behavioral and neuroimaging studies have suggested a close relationship between uncertainty responses and cognitive control, little is known about what elements of uncertainty are more or less vulnerable to cognitive modulation in shaping aversive responses. Leveraging a novel paradigm, an n-back working memory task embedded within a modified threat-of-shock paradigm, we examined how the influences of different facets of uncertainty (i.e., occurrence and timing) on psychophysiological responses were modulated by cognitive load. Psychophysiological responses were assessed using the acoustic startle reflex. Replicating prior work, the effects of cognitive load and temporal unpredictability of threat on startle responses were evident. The effect of occurrence unpredictability appears to depend on other factors. Under low cognitive load, startle response was potentiated when both the occurrence and the timing of threat were predictable. Under high cognitive load, startle response was significantly reduced, especially when a threat context involves uncertainty in both temporal and probability domains. These observations provide a framework for refining the model of fear and anxiety and for understanding the etiology of psychological disorders characterized by maladaptive uncertainty responses.

The “Happy Face Killer” in the eyes of the beholder: Relational encoding of facial emotions in context influences trustworthiness attributions

Research on face perception has established that faces surrounded by threatening contexts are perceived as less trustworthy. Moreover, recent studies revealed that such a face-context integration effect is moderated by the nature of the relational qualifier connecting the face and the context: presenting a face as belonging to either the perpetrator or the victim of the threatening context changes its perceived trustworthiness. Here, we asked whether relational qualifiers can also be extracted from subtle facial cues. In two preregistered studies (N = 225), we tested whether face-context integration is qualified by facial emotions. In Experiment 1, faces appeared with either happy or fearful emotional expressions in threatening contexts (vs. no context). Facial emotions moderated face-context integration: The negative impact of contextual threat on attributed trustworthiness showed stronger for happy than fearful faces. In Experiment 2, participants judged the emotional stimuli on both trustworthiness and smartness. Emotions altered face-context integration when judging trustworthiness but did not alter smartness judgments. Moreover, participants' tendency to judge happy faces in threatening contexts as less trustworthy correlated with their belief that the target face belonged to the criminal on the scene. The importance of considering relational encoding when studying person perception is discussed.

Understanding Public’s Adoption of Preventive Behavior During COVID-19 Pandemic Using Health Belief Model: Role of Psychological Capital and Health Appraisals

Recognizing the importance of prevention during a highly transmissible disease like COVID-19, this study analyzed the effect of health psychological capital and health appraisals (benefits, barriers, contextual threat, seriousness and susceptibility) on voluntary adoption of preventive behavior. The theoretical framework was based on health belief model. The study also proposed the mediating role of health appraisals between health psychological capital and preventive behavior. Participants from Pakistan ( N = 321) and Malaysia ( N = 343) completed an online survey. Samples from both countries were compared for measurement model invariance and variance in path coefficient. Partial least squares approach to SEM using SMART-PLS3 software was adopted to analyze the measurement model, structural model, importance-performance analysis, and mediation testing. Our finding showed that the model explained a higher variance in preventive behavior for Pakistani samples compared to Malaysian samples. Countries were found to moderate some of the proposed relationships. Benefits and threats are the two most important predictors of preventive behaviors in both countries. Psychological capital is more predictive of coping and threat appraisals and is, directly and indirectly, related to preventive behavior via benefits, barriers, and threats in Pakistani sample, and only indirectly related to preventive behavior via benefits and threats in the Malaysian sample. Perceived threat also mediates the relationship of susceptibility and seriousness with preventive behavior. Public health messages should focus on enhancing health psychological capital, highlight the potential benefit and emphasize the perils of not adopting the precautionary approach.

Individual differences in contextual threat generalisation and uncertainty: The role of intolerance of uncertainty.

Threat generalisation is an adaptive process that is essential for individual survival. In contrast, over-generalisation is a pathological process that underlies the development of anxiety disorders. Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) is an individual characteristic known to influence threat generalisation by altering the responses to threat in uncertain situations. However, how it affects contextual threat generalisation remains unclear. Here, we used a novel paradigm to investigate whether contextual threat generalisation varied between individuals depending on their IU level (high or low) and the predictability of a situation (predictable or unpredictable). We analysed shock expectancy in 82 participants (age: 18-27 years) during threat acquisition and generalisation. Results showed that compared with the low IU group, the high IU group exhibited increased contextual threat generalisation to threat-related cues in unpredictable situation. These findings suggest that IU could be a marker for anxiety disorder susceptibility, as well as a target for anxiety treatment.

Healthcare Cybersecurity Threat Context and Mitigation Opportunities

With the rapid increase in cybersecurity incidents around the globe, no business or industry is hidden from cybercriminals' crosshairs. Cyber-attacks are evolving and becoming more complex each day, causing much damage to different financial and reputational sectors. The health sector (including healthcare technology) is increasingly digitized and continues to offer life-critical services. It continues to improve diagnosis, treatment, and patient care with state-of-the-art technologies. However, cybercriminals continue to exploit vulnerabilities and exfiltrate confidential patient data and other confidential information. The health care sector offers cybercriminals a rich source of confidential data and is very easy to exploit as the defense and security controls are weak. Because of the growing number of threats associated with the health sector, it is essential to understand how health care practitioners - along with concerned critical Information Technology (IT) teams - can take steps to improve the cybersecurity posture of this industry and help reduce the attack surface. Hence, this paper discusses a critical approach to analyze the current cybersecurity challenges faced by the health care sector and relevant mitigation and other scholarly articles and research papers.

How expert insight into alpine peatland conservation complements global scientific evidence.

Experts can provide valuable information to fill knowledge gaps in published research on management effectiveness, particularly for threatened ecosystems, for which there is often limited evidence and the need for prompt intervention to ensure their persistence. One such ecosystem, alpine peatlands, is threatened by climate change and other pressures, provides vital ecosystem services, and supports unique biodiversity. In a workshop, we gathered and synthesized into an accessible format information from experts on interventions used, threat context, and intervention effectiveness for Australian alpine peatlands and used this knowledge to evaluate local relevance of the global literature for this threatened ecosystem. Experts identified 15 interventions used to conserve Australian peatlands, most of which enhanced or restored peatland condition and effectively addressed diverse threats. Experts' perspectives and global studies were aligned strongly, suggesting that research on peatland management may be broadly relevant across contexts, despite the distinct characteristics of Australian systems. Our workshop-based expert elicitation approach provided insights into current management practices unavailable in the literature. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Stressful life events and accelerated biological aging over time in youths

Experiencing adversity in childhood and adolescence, including stressful life events (SLEs), may accelerate the pace of development, leading to adverse mental and physical health. However, most research on adverse early experiences and biological aging (BA) in youths relies on cross-sectional designs. In 171 youths followed for approximately 2 years, we examined if SLEs over follow-up predicted rate of change in two BA metrics: epigenetic age and Tanner stage. We also investigated if rate of change in BA was associated with changes in depressive symptoms over time. Youths aged 8–16 years at baseline self-reported Tanner stage and depressive symptoms at baseline and follow-up and provided saliva samples for DNA at both assessments. Horvath epigenetic age estimates were derived from DNA methylation data measured with the Illumina EPIC array. At follow-up, contextual threat interviews were administered to youths and caregivers to assess youths’ experiences of past-year SLEs. Interviews were objectively coded by an independent rating team to generate a SLE impact score, reflecting the severity of all SLEs occurring over the prior year. Rate of change in BA metrics was operationalized as change in epigenetic age or Tanner stage as a function of time between assessments. Higher objective SLE impact scores over follow-up were related to a greater rate of change in epigenetic age (β = 0.21, p = .043). Additionally, among youths with lower—but not higher—Tanner stage at baseline, there was a positive association of SLE impact scores with rate of change in Tanner stage (Baseline Tanner Stage × SLE Impact Score interaction: β = − 0.21, p = .011). A greater rate of change in epigenetic age was also associated with higher depressive symptom levels at follow-up, adjusting for baseline symptoms (β = 0.15, p = .043). Associations with epigenetic age were similar, although slightly attenuated, when adjusting for epithelial (buccal) cell proportions. Whereas much research in youths has focused on severe experiences of early adversity, we demonstrate that more commonly experienced SLEs during adolescence may also contribute to accelerated BA. Further research is needed to understand the long-term consequences of changes in BA metrics for health.

A Ventromedial Prefrontal-to-Lateral Entorhinal Cortex Pathway Modulates the Gain of Behavioral Responding During Threat

BackgroundThe ability to correctly associate cues and contexts with threat is critical for survival, and the inability to do so can result in threat-related disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus are well known to play critical roles in cued and contextual threat memory processing. However, the circuits that mediate prefrontal-hippocampal modulation of context discrimination during cued threat processing are less understood. Here, we demonstrate the role of a previously unexplored projection from the ventromedial region of PFC (vmPFC) to the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) in modulating the gain of behavior in response to contextual information during threat retrieval and encoding. MethodsWe used optogenetics followed by in vivo calcium imaging in male C57/B6J mice to manipulate and monitor vmPFC-LEC activity in response to threat-associated cues in different contexts. We then investigated the inputs to, and outputs from, vmPFC-LEC cells using Rabies tracing and channelrhodopsin-assisted electrophysiology. ResultsvmPFC-LEC cells flexibly and bidirectionally shaped behavior during threat expression, shaping sensitivity to contextual information to increase or decrease the gain of behavioral output in response to a threatening or neutral context, respectively. ConclusionsGlutamatergic vmPFC-LEC cells are key players in behavioral gain control in response to contextual information during threat processing and may provide a future target for intervention in threat-based disorders.