Contaminated River Water Research Articles

Origins and levels of artificial radionuclides within the Rhône river waters (France) for the last forty years: Towards an evaluation of the radioecological sensitivy of river systems

The Rhone watershed extends over almost one hundred thousands square kilometers, i.e. one fifth of the metropolitan French territory. The Rhone is the major River entering the Western Mediterranean Sea as it generates the main source of sediments and freshwater (50%) to the sea, with an average water discharge of 1700 m 3 s -1 . The River input affects primary production significantly in the north- western Mediterranean area and plays a leading role on the marine ecosystem functioning in the whole Gulf of Lion. Almost twenty nuclear reactors are situated along the Rhone valley, representing Europe's biggest concentration of nuclear power plants. Down flow all these installations the spent fuel reprocessing plant of Marcoule released over many years most of the liquid radioactive wastes including plutonium isotopes in the Rhone river. Artificial radionuclides also originate from the weathering of the catchment basin labeled by both the global and the Chernobyl accident atmospheric fallout. These radioactive inputs have led to a permanent contamination of the Rhone river waters. Long-term chronological series of artificial radionuclide activities within the waters at the lower reaches of the Rhone river were acquired from 1979 to 2002. These data give evidence for various radioecological responses of the aquatic system over years. Based on these observations several major radioecological sensitivity factors for river waters are identified.

Ecotoxicological Assessment of After-Effects of the Volga River Water Contamination

Comprehensive assessment of ecotoxicological situation in the Volga River basin is presented. Concentrations of organic and inorganic toxic substances are cited. Basic clinic and postmortem symptoms of intoxication in fish are described; changes in the cellular structure of their organs and tissues, as well as disturbances in hemogenesis, developing under the effect of toxic agents, are characterized. Based on the dose-effect dependences, calculated according to the values of the total concentration of toxic substances, standardized to MPC, and criteria of the physiological state of fish, cases of exceedance of the critical concentrations of pollutants are demonstrated for the investigated river sections.

Survival of infectious Poliovirus-1 in river water compared to the persistence of somatic coliphages, thermotolerant coliforms and Poliovirus-1 genome

The microbiological quality of water is currently assessed by search for fecal bacteria indicators. There is, however, a body of knowledge demonstrating that bacterial indicators are less resistant to environmental factors than human pathogenic viruses and therefore underestimate the viral risk. As river water is often used as a resource for drinking water production, it is particularly important to obtain a valid estimation of the health hazard, including specific viral risk. This work was conducted to compare the survival of infectious Poliovirus-1 used as a pathogenic virus model to the persistence of, on the one hand, thermotolerant coliforms commonly used as indicators and on the other hand, to somatic coliphages and Poliovirus-1 genome considered as potential indicators. We studied the behavior of infectious Poliovirus-1 and the three (potential) indicators of viral contamination in river water at three different temperatures (4°C,18°C and 25°C). This experiment was performed twice with river water sampled at two different periods, once in winter and once in summer. Our results showed that the survival of thermotolerant coliforms can be 1.5-fold lower than infectious Poliovirus-1. In contrast, under all our experimental conditions, somatic coliphages and Poliovirus-1 genome persisted longer than infectious Poliovirus-1, surviving, respectively, 2–6-fold and about 2-fold longer than infectious Poliovirus-1. According to our results exclusively based on survival capacity, somatic coliphages and viral genome, unlike thermotolerant coliforms appear to be better indicators of viral contamination in river water. Moreover, the disappearance of viral genome is well-correlated to that one of infectious virus irrespective of the conditions tested.

Removal of organic matter and nitrogen from river water in a model floodplain.

A significant improvement in river water quality cannot be expected unless nonpoint-source contaminants are treated in addition to the further treatment of point-source contaminants. If river water is sprayed over a floodplain, the consequent water filtration through the sediment profile can simultaneously remove organic matter and nitrogen in the water through aerobic and denitrifying reactions. This hypothesis was tested using lysimeters constructed from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe (150 cm long, 15 cm in diameter) packed with loamy sand floodplain sediment. Water was applied to the top of the lysimeters at three different flow rates (48, 54, and 68 mm d(-1)). Concentrations of NO3 and dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and redox potential (Eh) in the water were measured as functions of depth after the system reached steady states for both water flow and reactions. At the rate of 68.0 mm d(-1), a reducing condition for denitrification developed below the 5-cm depth due to the depletion of O2 by organic matter degradation in the surface oxidizing layer; Eh and DO were below 205 mV and 0.4 mg L(-1), respectively. At a depth of 70 cm, COD and NO3-N concentration decreased to 5.2 and 3.8 mg L(-1) from the respective influent concentrations of 17.1 and 6.2 mg L(-1). Most biodegradable organic matter was removed during flow and further removal of NO3 was limited by the lack of an electron donor (i.e., organic matter). These results indicate that the floodplain filtration technique has great promise for treatment of contaminated river water.

Characterization of heavy metals in contaminated volcanic soils of the Solofrana river valley (southern Italy)

A number of volcanic agricultural soils from the Solofrana river valley (southwestern Italy), irrigated for a long time with contaminated river water or subjected to overflowing, were collected and examined for fundamental soil parameters and total content and distribution of Fe, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn. Micromorphological properties, the effect of main soil characteristics on the distribution of heavy metals in the various forms, and metal uptake or effects on vegetables were also investigated. Chromium and Cu were the only metal contaminants, occurring in soils in broad ranges of concentrations (Cr 62–335 and Cu 70–565 mg kg −1) and in the surface horizons always above the regulatory levels (Cr 150, Cu 120 mg kg −1), as established by the Italian Ministry of the Environment for soils of public, private and residential areas. Chromium and Cu, but also Ni, Pb and Zn, were concentrated in silt (20–2 μm) and clay (<2 μm) fractions. Sequential extractions indicated for all soils a preferential association of Cr and Cu with organic matter. Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn, while occurring in analysed samples in usual soil concentrations, were primarily held in the residual mineral fraction (>50%). Mn was uniformly distributed among all the extracted fractions. For all metals the soluble and exchangeable forms made a small contribution to the total. Significant amounts of Cr and Cu were recovered in the acid ammonium oxalate extraction, suggesting association of metals with short-range-order aluminosilicates and organo–mineral complexes. The amounts of metals extracted by oxalate were found to be approximately equal to two thirds of the sequentially removed non-residual amounts. The results of DTPA extraction confirmed the low bioavailability of heavy metals in soil. The metal concentration in dwarf beans and lettuces growing on one contaminated soil did not exceed the maximum concentration recommended by the European Union. However, the enzyme activities in the bean roots indicated the induction of anti-oxidative defense mechanisms due to metallic stress. Optical microscopy (OM) showed occurrence of clay and silt coatings along elongated pores in the surface and subsurface soil horizons, suggesting a risk of metal-rich sediment transfer along the soil pore network during water movement.

Effect of flood-induced chemical load on filtrate quality at bank filtration sites

Riparian municipal wells, that are located on riverbanks, are specifically designed to capture a portion of the river water through induced infiltration. Runoff from agricultural watersheds is found to carry enormous amounts of pesticides and nitrate. While the risk of contamination for a vast majority of sites with small-capacity vertical wells is low, potential exists for medium to large capacity collector wells to capture a fraction of the surface water contaminants during flood. Prior monitoring and current modeling results indicate that a small-capacity (peak pumpage 0.0315 m 3/s) vertical bank filtration well may not be affected by river water nitrate and atrazine even during flood periods. For a medium capacity (0.0875–0.175 m 3/s) hypothetical collector well at the same site, potential exists for a portion of the river water nitrate and atrazine to enter the well during flood periods. Various combinations of hydraulic conductivity of the riverbed or bank material were used. For nitrate, it was assumed either no denitrification occurred during the period of simulation or a half-life of 2 years. Equilibrium controlled sorption (organic carbon partition coefficient of 52 ml/g) and a half-life of between 7.5 and 15 weeks were considered for atrazine. Combinations of these parameters were used in various simulations. Peak concentrations of atrazine or nitrate in pumped water could vary from less than 1% to as high as 90% of that in the river. It was found that a combination of river stage, pumping rates, hydraulic properties of the riverbed and bank, and soil/pesticide properties could affect contaminant entry from river water to any of these wells. If the hydraulic conductivity of the bed and bank material were low, atrazine would not reach the pumping well with or without sorption and degradation. However, for moderately low permeable bank and bed materials, some atrazine from river water could enter a hypothetical collector well while pumping at 0.0875 m 3/s. It was interesting to note that doubling the pumpage of this collector well would bring in more ground water from the aquifer (with no atrazine) and thus have a lower concentration of atrazine in the filtrate. For highly conductive banks, it is possible to find some atrazine at a vertical well for a sustained pumpage rate of 0.0125 m 3/s if the effect of sorption is neglected. However, with equilibrium sorption, the concentration would be below the detection limit. On the other hand, if a collector well of capacity 0.0875 m 3/s is used at the place of the vertical well with highly conductive banks, atrazine concentration in the filtrate would be about 80% of river water even assuming equilibrium sorption and a half-life of 7.5 weeks. Remediation of river water contamination of the aquifer using ‘scavenger’ wells between the river and the pumping well(s) was not a feasible option due to the contact of the aquifer with a highly conductive bank at the site. However, moving the existing pumping well(s) 100 m upstream would have negligible impact from the bank-stored water.

Analysis of estrogenic contaminants in river water using liquid chromatography coupled to ion trap based mass spectrometry.

A precise and reliable method, using liquid chromatography combined with ion trap based mass spectrometry, for the determination of three endogenous estrogens, namely, estrone, estradiol, and estriol, and two synthetic estrogens, ethinyl estradiol and diethylstilbestrol, in environmental water samples was developed. Optimization of the parameter settings of the ion source and mass analyzer as well as evaluation of solvent composition were carried out by continuous introduction of standards through a syringe pump. In negative ion mode the electrospray ionization source gave acceptable results. The optimum solvent used consisted of water/acetonitrile, with no volatile bases or buffers added. A simple, off-line, manual solid-phase extraction method was developed for sample preparation of environmental water samples. Recoveries were over 86% for all compounds. The method was validated and found to be linear, selective, and robust. For analysis of a 50-mL sample, the limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 3.2 to 10.6 ng/L for all compounds, and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) from 10.6 to 35.0 ng/L. Within-day (n = 5) and total (n = 5) reproducibility were investigated at three different concentration levels and ranged from 6.2 to 9.5% and 9.4 to 12.1%, respectively. Finally, the method was applied to real-world samples.

Acute Leptospirosis in a Triathlete

We report the case of a 38-year-old male patient with acute leptospirosis. The most probable cause of infection was repeated and prolonged exposure to contaminated river water (Neckar and Enz rivers) while preparing for participation in long-distance triathlon (swimming, biking, and running) competitions.

Water monitoring system for oil contamination using polymer-coated quartz crystal microbalance chemical sensor

A water monitoring system with a new chemical sensor for oil contamination was developed. The sensor had an organic polymer film on a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). The organic film was a hydrocarbon polymer and had high affinities for the organic compounds of petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil and fuel oil. The monitoring system as composed of a sampling part, a purging part, a humidity control part and a sensor part. The oil in contaminated river water could be detected whose threshold odour number (TON) was less than three. The detecting time was less than 5 min depending on the oil kindness. This system was tested using artificially contaminated river water with the oils, to be found that the sensitivity was kept steady for longer than 6 months with 400 detections of diesel oil and heavy oil. Moreover, the oil kind could be discriminated with only one sensor device by analyzing the desorption response curves obtained by flowing a clean air on the sensor instead of the purging air.

Assessment of water systems for contaminants from domestic and industrial sewages.

The State of Minas Gerais represents one of Brazil's most outstanding mining resources. The contamination of river water from kaolin processing activities may be harmful to people in the way of slow but chronic poisoning. On the other hand, the discharge of untreated or inadequately treated domestic sewage into aquatic environments can also cause deleterious effects to the health. However, no reliable figures are available for pollutant occurrences in river water. This draws attention to the very precarious situation that exists with respect to pollution by organic and inorganic toxic wastes, especially with respect to humans and fauna in all its expressions. Thus, with the purpose of establishing a preliminary report to trace out industrialisation outcomes, samples of river water, vegetation and fish were collected and analysed to detect pollutant inputs. The concentration of metals was determined in suspended particle, vegetation and fish, while those of nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and chloride were determined in river water samples. The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) was measured in river water at the time of collection. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were also determined. Metal inputs in the samples analysed appeared to be related to effluent discharges into the rivers. The suspended particles showed high concentrations (in mg kg(-1)) of zinc (62 600) and aluminium (559 000), while vegetation samples collected near rivers were heavily contaminated with iron (7680). The fishes examined were contaminated with chromium (1.5 mg kg(-1)). In general, the concentrations of nitrite, nitrate, chloride, phosphate and BOD in river water were lower than the maximum values established by the Brazilian Environmental Standards.

Metal Contamination of River Waters and Sediments from Effluents of Kaolin Processing in Brazil

In order to evaluate the metal contamination from kaolin industry discharges into rivers in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, samples of river water and fluvial sediment were collected up- and down-river from the industries and analysed todetect metal inputs. The metal examined included zinc, iron, andaluminium among others, being selected due to their toxicity andoccurence in waste waters. Metal inputs in the samples analysed appeared to be related to effluent discharges into the rivers. The river water showed high concentrations (in μg mL-1) of Zn (355), Fe (354) and Al (303). Sediment investigations indicated heavy enrichment (SEF = 9.4) for Zn. The Geoaccumulation Index for this element accounted for 3 (moderately to heavy polluted). River water pH of the sample collected near the effluent discharge site reached 3.7, suggesting inadequate treatment.

Coal mining activity and radium isotope contamination of river water in Silesia, Poland

The aim of this research was to determine the relative proportions of soluble and nonsoluble radium in river waters in the Silesia region of Poland and its vicinity. Samples were collected in May 1997 from the Vistula River at seven different locations, and from six tributaries during medium river level conditions. Samples were filtered, and separate analyses were conducted on the liquid and solid phases. Radium was separated by co-precipitation (with PbCrO 4 and BaSO 4 ). The thin sources obtained were analysed by alpha-spectrometer with silicon detectors, and by low-background gamma spectrometer (the recovery of radium was controlled by Ba-133 tracer). The highest activity of Ra-226 in the water samples was 334±11 mBq l -1 , whereas the lowest result was 0±1 mBq l -1 . These results suggest that radium is transported in soluble form (or as very tiny particles).

Contamination of river water by Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in western Japan.

In Japan, only a few rivers have been inspected for Cryptosporidium parvum contamination, and the methods used had low sensitivity. In 1998 and 1999, we used a method with higher sensitivity to examine all large rivers used as sources of water supply in one prefecture (which we divided into four areas) in western Japan for Cryptosporidium oocysts. One sample was collected at each of 156 sites along 18 rivers, and samples were tested for Cryptosporidium oocysts by immunomagnetic separation. Samples were classified as being obtained on an island with livestock and fishing industries, a densely populated urban area, a western region including farming villages, or a still more rural northern area with agriculture and fishing. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis was used for identification of the C. parvum found as the bovine or human type. C. parvum was detected in at least one sample from 13 of the 18 rivers and in 47% (74 of 156) of the samples. One-third to all of the samples from each area contained C. parvum oocysts. The number of C. parvum oocysts per 20 liters of river water varied in the same pattern as the number of cattle kept in the four kinds of areas (as determined by the Mantel extension test). Oocysts isolated were of the bovine type; the C. parvum detected in rivers probably came from cattle kept in that valley. As we had expected, when tested with a more sensitive method, river water in western Japan was found to be greatly contaminated with C. parvum oocysts, as reported in other countries.

Evidence of coprostanol estrogenicity to the freshwater mussel Elliptio complanata

Coprostanol (5β(H)-cholestan-3βol) is a reduced metabolite of cholesterol produced by micro-organisms found in the intestinal tract of mammals. This substance abounds in urban effluents and is accumulated by organisms living in the vicinity of municipal effluent outfalls. In an earlier study, freshwater mussels exposed to contaminated river water for 62 days accumulated large quantities of coprostanol (Cop) in their soft tissues (16 μg/g dry wt.). Moreover, these mussels were found to have elevated levels of vitellin in their hemolymphs, suggesting estrogenic effects. Although municipal wastewaters are known to contain other estrogenic compounds capable of inducing Vn synthesis in mussels, the estrogenic potential of coprostanol was singled out for examination. To this end, mussels were first injected with concentrations of coprostanol via the abductor muscle route, and allowed to stand in aerated water for 72 h at 15°C. The levels of Vn in mussel hemolymph were assayed using the organic alkali-labile phosphate method. A competitive estradiol-binding assay was then devised to measure the ability of coprostanol to compete in the binding of fluorescein-labeled estradiol-albumin to cytosolic proteins. Coprostanol partially reversed the binding of labeled estradiol-albumin to cytosolic proteins with an EC 50 of 1 mM. In addition, injections of coprostanol and estradiol-17β led to increased levels of vitellins in the hemolymph of treated mussels. Moreover, incubation of cop in gonad homogenate extracts in the presence of NADPH led to the formation of two compounds, as determined by high-performance thin-layer chromatography. One of these compounds appears to be the C17 oxidation product of coprostanol, whose polarity is similar to that of estradiol. The results present evidence that coprostanol is estrogenic to freshwater mussels.

Evaluation of a multidimensional solid-phase extraction platform for highly selective on-line cleanup and high-throughput LC-MS analysis of triazines in river water samples using molecularly imprinted polymers.

A novel highly selective sample cleanup procedure based on the use of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as solid-phase extraction materials has been evaluated with respect to its applicability and routine use in environmental analysis. The method comprises the combination of a restricted access material (RAM) and a MIP allowing a selective sample preparation to be achieved in the online mode. This combination is called the size-selective sample separation and solvent switch (six-SPE). The RAM column combines size exclusion and adsorption chromatography, reducing the concentration of matrix molecules by a cutoff of 15 kDa. The MIP column selectively retains the triazine analytes whereas the residual matrix is not retained and separated completely. Thus, the automated RAM-MIP is capable of excluding all matrix and nontarget compounds. The cleaned and enriched extract is subsequently eluted to an HPLC column and analyzed by LC-MS. A complete on-line analysis cycle including multidimensional solid-phase extraction, separation, and detection takes less than 15 min. Terbuthylazine, atrazine, propazine, simazine, ametryn, prometryn, irgarol, and also the metabolites deethylatrazine and deisopropylatrazine can be determined without any matrix interferences, e.g., by humic acids. The whole setup is fully automated and may be continuously operated. Nonspecific interactions with the polymer are below 1% in all cases. The accuracy of the LC-MIP-LC-MS system was controlled using a certified reference material (Aquacheck). The applicability of the method to the cleanup of real samples was demonstrated by injection of contaminated river water samples. The stability of different polymers was tested by consecutive injections, and it was shown that the performance of the materials did not vary even after more than 300 enrichment and desorption cycles.

Radioactive contamination distribution in the bottom sediments and water of the Mishelyak River

Joint Russian-American field studies have been conducted within theframework of a Memorandum of Cooperation between the Ministry of Atomic Energyfor the Russian Federation and the U.S. Department of Energy and managed bythe Joint Coordinating Committee on Environmental Restoration and Waste Management(JCCEM). We conducted the field studies discussed in this report in 1996 nearthe Mayak Production Association in the South Urals, Russia. The primary purposeof the research was to apply new methods to study the distribution of a contaminantplume originating from Lake Karachai, an unlined radioactive waste repository,which is currently migrating into the Mishelyak River valley. This researchwas conducted within the frontal part of the contaminant water plume. Thestudies from this work include: surface water and soil moisture sampling within situ radiometric measurements. The data from the radiometric measurementsobtained in the field were then compared to laboratory measurements of fieldsamples. Due to the possible inflow of the radionuclides from the groundwaterto the Mishelyak River, this paper also describes the study of river bottomsediments and water contamination.

Detection of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and cockles (Cerastoderma edule).

Infective Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were detected in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and cockles (Cerastoderma edule) from a shellfish-producing region (Gallaecia, northwest Spain, bounded by the Atlantic Ocean) that accounts for the majority of European shellfish production. Shellfish were collected from bay sites with different degrees of organic pollution. Shellfish harboring C. parvum oocysts were recovered only from areas located near the mouths of rivers with a high density of grazing ruminants on their banks. An approximation of the parasite load of shellfish collected in positive sites indicated that each shellfish transported more than 10(3) oocysts. Recovered oocysts were infectious for neonatal mice, and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis demonstrated a profile similar to that described for genotype C or 2 of the parasite. These results demonstrate that mussels and cockles could act as a reservoir of C. parvum infection for humans. Moreover, estuarine shellfish could be used as an indicator of river water contamination.

Impact of a wastewater treatment plant on Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts occurring in a surface water

The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a municipal wastewater treatment plant (MWTP) on the occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in the receiving water. All MWTP effluent samples were Giardia and Cryptosporidium contaminated, although low mean values were found for both parasites (0.21±0.06 oocysts/L; 1.39±0.51 cysts/L). Otherwise, in the raw sewage a greater concentration was detected (4.5±0.3 oocysts/L; 53.6±6.8 cysts/L). The major occurrence of Giardia over Cryptosporidium, both in the influent and in the effluent of the MWTP, is probably related to the human sewage contribution to the wastewater. Data on protozoa contamination of the receiving water body demonstrated similar concentrations in the samples collected before (0.21±0.07 oocysts/L; 1.31±0.38 cysts/L) and after (0.17±0.09 oocysts/L and 1.01±1.05 cysts/L) the plant effluent discharge. The results of this study suggest that the MWTP has no impact related to Giardia and Cryptosporidium river water contamination, and underline the need for investigation into the effectiveness of these protozoa removal by less technologically advanced MWTPs which are the most widespread and could probably show a lower ability to reduce protozoa.

Integrating environmental impact, contingent valuation and cost-benefit analysis: empirical evidence for an alternative perspective

The non-market nature of water quality improvement in rivers hinders the use of traditional cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to measure the efficiency of investments. Substantial investments have been made to clean up contaminated river water with little comparison of the costs or environmental impact (EI) with future benefits. Water quality impact models are used in this study to predict the impact of discharges on downstream water quality. Contingent valuation (CV) is used to measure the total value, including use and non-use, of river water quality improvement. This provides the benefit side of the cost-benefit equation. The method outlined provides a tool to evaluate investment on environmental improvement integrating EI and CV in CBA.

Occurence and Control of Bromate in Aqueous Media

Bromate salt is an oxidizing agent that has been widely used as a food additive, but now the use of bromate is restricted to low level because of its mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Potassium bromate was weakly mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium TA100, TA102, and TA104 in the presence of metabolic activation, though the compound proved to be negative in TA98, TA1535, TA1537 and TA1538. It also demonstrated genotoxicity in some microbial tests. Potassium bromate or its radical derived from reduction seems to induce lipid peroxidation in producing oxidized DNA damage to the target. Bromate ion also exists in drinking water produced during ozonation of bromide-containing water. WHO guideline for drinking water quality recommended bromate concentration below 0.025mg/l and the U.S. government determined the maximum bromate concentration as 0.010mg/l in regulation, which leads the application of ozonation to be reconsidered. In Japan, 0.127mg/l of bromate ion was produced in experimental ozonation plant and the maximum of bromate ion (0.03mg/l) was detected in drinking water treatment plant. Bromate can be produced with water of high bromide concentration and must be controlled in treatment plant of high ozone dosage. New activated carbon reduces bromate though the activated carbon used for several months showed no reduction of bromate. Reduction of pH and ozone dose is most available technology for reducing bromate. Bromate is also detected in sodium hypochloride as a disinfectant and chlorinated water. Contaminated river water contained bromate up to 0.009mg/l, possibly discharged from permanent-wave neutralizing agent. Environmental bromide and bromate contamination should have a potential importance.