Consumption Of Tomato Products Research Articles

Antioxidant Properties of Tomato Fruit (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) as Affected by Cultivar and Processing Method

Tomatoes are the most consumed vegetables worldwide and a valuable source of several antioxidants. The consumption of tomato products from appropriate cultivars after suitable processing methods may significantly improve human diet. The purpose of this study was investigating the variations in the contents of the main antioxidants present in tomato fruits, in the new Cuban breeds and yellow varieties, as well as their changes during the processing to tomato puree and ketchup. The quality evaluation comprised the detection of lycopene, ascorbic acid and total phenolics and the analysis of their contribution to antioxidant capacity in selected tomato genotypes. Heating (90–100 °C/15 min) enhanced the content of lycopene and total phenolics in puree, resulting in an increment in antioxidant capacity, despite the reduction in ascorbic acid as a result of concentration processes. The conducted experiments revealed that cultivars ‘Vyta’ and ‘Cima’ are very suitable for industrial purposes due to their high dry-matter content of more than 9% fresh mass and high biological value. With respect to serving size, the best sources of antioxidants are fresh tomatoes, followed closely by tomato puree, irrespective of cultivar. However, the differences are mainly due to the edible portion size (200 g for fresh tomatoes and 60 mL for puree, respectively).

Associations Between Consumption of Different Vegetable Types and Depressive Symptoms in Japanese Workers: A Cross-Sectional Study.

PurposeVegetable intake is an important part of our everyday diet and is associated with many positive health outcomes. Although previous studies have investigated the association between vegetable consumption and depressive symptoms among various populations, no study has examined this association in the adult working population. The present study investigated whether the frequency of consumption of a specific type of vegetable is associated with the prevalence of depressive symptoms in Japanese adult workers.Participants and MethodsThe final participants consisted of 1724 Japanese adults, and a cross-sectional study was conducted to analyze the results. The frequency of vegetable consumption and depressive symptoms was evaluated using a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS), respectively. The association between the variables was examined using Poisson regression analysis. Age-stratified analysis was performed, and SDS cut-off values of 45 and 50 were used to perform a sensitivity analysis.ResultsAfter adjustment for covariates, including age, body mass index, sociodemographic and lifestyle-related variables, health condition, C-reactive protein, and other dietary variables, an inverse association was found between tomato product consumption and the prevalence of depressive symptoms among men (P for trend <0.01); however, no significant association was found for other vegetable types. For women, there was no association between the frequency of consumption of any of the vegetable types and the prevalence of depressive symptoms. The results were confirmed by the age-stratified analysis for both genders.ConclusionConsumption of tomato products may help alleviate depressive symptoms, regardless of differences in dietary culture among men.

Supply chain of tomato : Linking Indian Farmers to International Consumers

The consumption pattern of Indian consumers is fast diversifying due to rapid internationalization of dietary patterns, rising double income families and ever-increasing health consciousness. As a result, consumers have shifted significantly from consuming merely food grains to vegetables and fruits. This change has accelerated the demand for more and more horticultural produce, both raw and processed. Tomato is one of the major horticulture crops consumed world widely. The consumption of tomato products increased over the past few years. According to the report of WPTC the increase in the consumption of processed tomato indicates a slow shift of consumers away from fresh products towards processed products. The demand for tomato is high in Europe, North America, Italy, U.S.A, Russia and Germany. The demand of the processed tomato is more most of the tomato is consumed as sauce for pizza and pasta. Tomato is one of the most widely grown vegetable crops in Uttarakhand and Tarai region of North India. In Uttarakhand 119742 metric tons of tomato is cultivated in an area of 9360.75 hectares (NHB, 2019). The farmers of Uttarakhand prefer tomato cultivation as the agro-climate condition is favourable. Moreover, wide spread use of tomatoes for different food preparations such as soups, salads, pickles, chutney, paste, puree, ketchups, junk and ready to eat food has increased demand for tomatoes. In Uttarakhand, the generated produce is not efficiently supported by the existing market infrastructure. The entire supply chain of tomato is laden with inefficiencies: poor transportation facilities, lack of cold chain facilities, lack of processing units, poor connectivity from farm to market, huge post-harvest losses and large no. intermediaries. The grower’s still practice traditional cultivation methods remain unaware of consumer needs, preferences and prevailing market prices. This causes large fluctuation in consumer prices and low quality of non-standardized produce. This is a double whammy as farmers realize poor prices on the one hand whereas consumers pay exorbitant prices on the other hand. Horticulture crops being high value crops are important in enhancing income for the farmers besides creating on farm and off farm employment. It is important for India to leverage its diverse agro-climates and distinct seasons, which makes it possible for farmers to grow a wide variety of horticulture crops. The objective of this paper is to design an efficient supply chain model which can better price realization of farmers and also ensures timely, adequate, quality supplies to consumers at the right prices.

High Tomato and Tomato Product Consumption is Protective Against the Decline in Handgrip Strength Among Japanese Adults: The Oroshisho Study.

BackgroundThere is scarce epidemiological evidence regarding the relationships of the consumption of different types of vegetables or fruits with change in skeletal muscle strength. We prospectively examined the relationships among Japanese adults, using handgrip strength to assess skeletal muscle strength.MethodsA 3-year study was carried out with 259 Japanese adults who were 22–68 years of age. The frequency of consumption of different types of vegetables or fruits were obtained using a validated self-administered dietary history questionnaire. Handgrip strength was measured with a handheld digital Smedley dynamometer.ResultsAfter adjustment for confounding factors, the mean change in handgrip strength in participants stratified according to the level of tomato and tomato product consumption at baseline were −3.2 (95% confidence interval [CI], −4.0 to −2.3) for <1 time/week, −2.7 (95% CI, −3.6 to −1.8) for 1 time/week, −1.6 (95% CI, −2.5 to −0.8) for 2–3 times/week, and −1.7 (95% CI, −2.8 to −0.7) for ≥4 times/week, (P for trend = 0.022). However, the significant relationships of consumption of other types of vegetables and different types of fruits with change in handgrip strength were not observed.ConclusionHigher consumption of tomato and tomato product at baseline was significantly associated with reduced decline in handgrip strength among Japanese adults over a 3-year follow-up period. This study suggests that consumption of tomato and tomato product could be protective against the decline in skeletal muscle strength associated with aging.

Tomato and lycopene supplementation and cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and aimsEpidemiological evidence suggests an association between consumption of tomato products or lycopene and lower risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Our aim was to evaluate the state of the evidence from intervention trials on the effect of consuming tomato products and lycopene on markers of cardiovascular (CV) function. We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effect of supplementing tomato and lycopene on CV risk factors. MethodsThree databases including Medline, Web of science, and Scopus were searched from inception to August 2016. Inclusion criteria were: intervention trials reporting effects of tomato products and lycopene supplementation on CV risk factors among adult subjects >18 years of age. The outcomes of interest included blood lipids (total-, HDL-, LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, oxidised-LDL), endothelial function (flow-mediated dilation (FMD), pulse wave velocity (PWV)) and blood pressure (BP) inflammatory factors (CRP, IL-6) and adhesion molecules (ICAM-1). Random-effects models were used to determine the pooled effect sizes. ResultsOut of 1189 publications identified, 21 fulfilled inclusion criteria and were meta-analysed. Overall, interventions supplementing tomato were associated with significant reductions in LDL-cholesterol (−0.22 mmol/L; p = 0.006), IL-6 (standardised mean difference −0.25; p = 0.03), and improvements in FMD (2.53%; p = 0.01); while lycopene supplementation reduced systolic-BP (−5.66 mmHg; p = 0.002). No other outcome was significantly affected by these interventions. ConclusionsThe available evidence on the effects of tomato products and lycopene supplementation on CV risk factors supports the view that increasing the intake of these has positive effects on blood lipids, blood pressure and endothelial function. These results support the development of promising individualised nutritional strategies involving tomatoes to tackle CVD.

Abstract 4327: Dietary tomato reduces castration-resistant prostate cancer progression in TRAMP mice

Abstract Epidemiological data support the hypothesis that consumption of diets rich in tomato products are associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer. Castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) represents the late and lethal phase of human prostate carcinogenesis, and is defined as cancer progression after surgical castration or pharmacologic reduction of serum testosterone through androgen deprivation therapy. Mechanisms involved in the transition to CRPC include cancer cells’ acquired capacity for androgen synthesis or activation of ligand-independent signaling. We have previously shown that dietary tomato can inhibit prostatic androgen signaling and expression of androgen biosynthetic genes, as well as reduce primary cancer incidence in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. Therefore, we examined whether dietary tomato might be an effective inhibitor of CRPC progression in mice. We hypothesized that lifelong dietary intake of tomato, as well as dietary tomato intervention following castration, would reduce tumor burden and growth rate in a mouse model of CRPC. TRAMP mice were fed an AIN-93G diet (CON) for one week and then randomized to the CON diet (n = 28) or a similar diet with 10% w/w lyophilized tomato paste (TP; n = 27) from 4 wks of age until euthanization. A third group, modeling dietary intervention, consumed CON from 4 to 12 wks of age, and the 10% w/w lyophilized tomato paste diet from wk 12 until euthanization (TP-I; n = 25). All animals were castrated at 12 wks of age. Beginning at 10 wks of age, mice were monitored longitudinally with ultrasound for tumor detection, tumor volume estimation, and calculation of tumor growth rate. Serial 2D image slices were used to generate a 3D volume estimate. Mice were euthanized after 5 consecutive tumor scans, or if no tumor had been detected by 30 weeks of age. Tumor growth area under the curve (AUC) was reduced approximately 46% by tomato intervention (TP-I) and 27% by lifelong tomato consumption (TP). At euthanization, TP-I reduced tumor weight by approximately 26%. Additionally, incidence of gross metastases to distant organs (lung, liver, kidney) was strongly inhibited by TP-I, compared to CON (0% and 26%, respectively). TP diet reduced incidence of distant organ gross metastasis to &amp;lt;10%. The consumption of tomato products following castration inhibits CRPC progression in the TRAMP model. Our findings support the development of human studies of dietary tomato interventions in combination with anti-androgen therapy for men with advanced prostate cancer. Citation Format: Joshua W. Smith, Joe L. Rowles, Rita J. Miller, Steven K. Clinton, William D. O’Brien, John W. Erdman. Dietary tomato reduces castration-resistant prostate cancer progression in TRAMP mice. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 107th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2016 Apr 16-20; New Orleans, LA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(14 Suppl):Abstract nr 4327.

Lycopene, tomato products and prostate cancer-specific mortality among men diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort.

While dietary lycopene and tomato products have been inversely associated with prostate cancer incidence, there is limited evidence for an association between consumption of lycopene and tomato products and prostate-cancer specific mortality (PCSM). We examined the associations of prediagnosis and postdiagnosis dietary lycopene and tomato product intake with PCSM in a large prospective cohort. This analysis included men diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer between enrollment in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort in 1992 or 1993 and June 2011. Prediagnosis dietary data, collected at baseline, were available for 8,898 men, of whom 526 died of prostate cancer through 2012. Postdiagnosis dietary data, collected on follow-up surveys in 1999 and/or 2003, were available for 5,643 men, of whom 363 died of prostate cancer through 2012. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for PCSM. Neither prediagnosis nor postdiagnosis dietary lycopene intake was associated with PCSM (fourth vs. first quartile HR = 1.00, 95% CI 0.78-1.28; HR = 1.22, 95% CI 0.91-1.64, respectively). Similarly, neither prediagnosis nor postdiagnosis consumption of tomato products was associated with PCSM. Among men with high-risk cancers (T3-T4 or Gleason score 8-10, or nodal involvement), consistently reporting lycopene intake ≥ median on both postdiagnosis surveys was associated with lower PCSM (HR = 0.41, 95% CI 0.17-0.99, based on ten PCSM cases consistently ≥ median intake) compared to consistently reporting intake < median. Future studies are needed to confirm the potential inverse association of consistently high lycopene intake with PCSM among men with high-risk prostate cancers.

Sex differences in skin carotenoid deposition and acute UVB-induced skin damage in SKH-1 hairless mice after consumption of tangerine tomatoes.

UVB exposure, a major factor in the development of skin cancer, has differential sex effects. Tomato product consumption reduces the intensity of UVB-induced erythema in humans, but the mechanisms are unknown. Four-week-old SKH-1 hairless mice (40 females, 40 males) were divided into two feeding groups (control or with 10% tangerine tomatoes naturally rich in UV-absorbing phytoene and phytofluene) and two UV exposure groups (with or without UV). After 10 weeks of feeding, the UV group was exposed to a single UV dose and sacrificed 48 h later. Blood and dorsal skin samples were taken for carotenoid analysis. Dorsal skin was harvested to assess sex and UV effects on carotenoid deposition, inflammation (skinfold thickness, myeloperoxidase levels), and DNA damage (cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers, p53). Females had significantly higher levels of both skin and blood carotenoids relative to males. UV exposure significantly reduced skin carotenoid levels in females but not males. Tomato consumption attenuated acute UV-induced increases in CPD in both sexes, and reduced myeloperoxidase activity and percent p53 positive epidermal cells in males. Tangerine tomatoes mediate acute UV-induced skin damage in SKH-1 mice via reduced DNA damage in both sexes, and through reduced inflammation in males.

Protection against chemotaxis in the anti-inflammatory effect of bioactives from tomato ketchup.

The consumption of tomato products has been associated with a decreased risk for chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study, the anti-inflammatory potential of tomato ketchup was evaluated by studying the effect of tomato ketchup extracts and bioactives from tomato ketchup on human monocytes and vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC). HUVEC were pre-treated for 1 h with either individual bioactives (7.5 µM lycopene, 1.4 µM α-tocopherol or 55 µM ascorbic acid) or a combination of these three compounds, or with the hydrophilic or lipophilic tomato ketchup extracts or with the two extracts combined. After the pretreatment, the cells were washed and challenged with TNF-α (10 ng/ml) for 6 h. The medium was used for the determination of the release of cytokines and the chemotaxis of monocytes. Inflammatory protein expression and production were assayed with real-time RT-PCR and ELISA. It was found that tomato ketchup extracts significantly reduced gene expression and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-8 in HUVEC after the inflammatory challenge, whereas the release of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was increased. Chemotaxis was effectively impeded as demonstrated by a reduced monocyte migration. This effect correlated with the reduction of IL-8 production in the presence of the test compounds and extracts. The results consistently emphasize the contribution of lycopene to the anti-inflammatory effect of tomato ketchup. Other compounds in tomato ketchup such as α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid appeared to strengthen the anti-inflammatory effect of lycopene. The tomato ketchup extracts subtly interfered with several inflammatory phases that inhibit chemotaxis. Such a pleotropic mode of action exemplifies its potential mitigation of diseases characterized by prolonged low grade inflammation.

Lycopene-derived bioactive retinoic acid receptors/retinoid-X receptors-activating metabolites may be relevant for lycopene's anti-cancer potential

Dietary consumption of tomato products and especially the red tomato pigment lycopene has been associated with lower risk of cancer. New evidence is emerging toward metabolic pathways mediating the anti-cancer activities of lycopene. In this review, we explore associations between tomatoes and lycopene intake and cancer and relate this to the metabolic activation pathways of lycopene via carotene oxygenases and further carotenoid/retinoid-metabolizing enzymes to apo-lycopenoids. Several of these apo-lycopenoids have already been identified but up to date no direct connection between lycopene metabolism and apo-lycopenoids mediated receptor activation pathways has been established. Retinoic acid receptors/retinoid-X receptors activation pathways in particular, may be mediated via lycopene metabolites that are related to retinoic acids. Various studies have shown an association between lower concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 upon lycopene treatment, cancer incidences, and retinoid-mediated signaling. In this review, we interrelate tomato/lycopene ingestion and cancer incidence, with metabolic activation of lycopene and retinoid-mediated signaling. The aim is to discuss a potential mechanism to explain lycopene related anti-cancer activities by modulation of insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations via lycopene metabolite activation of retinoid-mediated signaling.

Relationship of lycopene intake and consumption of tomato products to incident CVD

Evidence for cardioprotective effects of lycopene is inconsistent. Studies of circulating lycopene generally report inverse associations with CVD risk, but studies based on lycopene intake do not. The failure of dietary studies to support the findings based on biomarkers may be due in part to misclassification of lycopene intakes. To address this potential misclassification, we used repeated measures of intake obtained over 10 years to characterise the relationship between lycopene intake and the incidence of CVD (n 314), CHD (n 171) and stroke (n 99) in the Framingham Offspring Study. Hazard ratios (HR) for incident outcomes were derived from Cox proportional hazards regression models using logarithmically transformed lycopene intake adjusted for CVD risk factors and correlates of lycopene intake. HR were interpreted as the increased risk for a 2·7-fold difference in lycopene intake, a difference approximately equal to its interquartile range. Using an average of three intake measures with a 9-year follow-up, lycopene intake was inversely associated with CVD incidence (HR 0·83, 95% CI 0·70, 0·98). Using an average of two intake measures and 11 years of follow-up, lycopene intake was inversely associated with CHD incidence (HR 0·74, 95% CI 0·58, 0·94). Lycopene intake was unrelated to stroke incidence. The present study of lycopene intake and CVD provides supporting evidence for an inverse association between lycopene and CVD risk; however, additional research is needed to determine whether lycopene or other components of tomatoes, the major dietary source of lycopene, are responsible for the observed association.

Consumption of tomato products is associated with lower blood mercury levels in Inuit preschool children

Some evidence suggests that various diet components and nutrients, including vegetables, fruit and food-derived antioxidants, could mitigate contaminant exposure and/or adverse health effects of contaminants. To examine the effect of the consumption of tomato products on blood mercury levels in Inuit preschool children, 155 Inuit children (25.0±9.1months) were recruited from 2006–2008 in Nunavik childcare centers (northern Québec, Canada). Food frequency questionnaires were completed at home and at the childcare center, and total blood mercury concentration was measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Multivariate regression analysis was performed after multiple imputation. The median blood concentration of mercury was 9.5nmol/L. Age, duration of breastfeeding, annual consumption frequency of seal meat, and monthly consumption frequency of tomato products were significant predictors of blood mercury levels, whereas annual consumption frequencies of beluga muktuk, walrus, Arctic char, and caribou meat were not. Each time a participant consumed tomato products during the month before the interview was associated with a 4.6% lower blood mercury level (p=0.0005). All other significant predictors in the model were positively associated with blood mercury levels. Further studies should explore interactions between consumption of healthy store-bought foods available in Arctic regions and contaminant exposure.

Tomato paste supplementation improves endothelial dynamics and reduces plasma total oxidative status in healthy subjects

Consumption of tomato products is linked to beneficial outcomes through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. The aim of this study was to determine whether a 14-day period of tomato paste supplementation would improve endothelial function. Nineteen volunteers (mean age, 39 ± 13 years; 8 men/11 women) were studied in a randomized (exposure sequence), single-blind (operator), crossover design. The study consisted of a supplementation arm (70 g tomato paste containing 33.3 mg of lycopene) and a control arm, during which no tomato paste was added to their regular diet. Volunteers maintained their regular diet during study arms. Two-week washout periods preceded each arm. Flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) measured by brachial artery ultrasonography was used as an estimate of endothelial function at day 1 (acute response) and day 15 (midterm response). Plasma lipid peroxides were measured with a photometric enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay as an index of total oxidative status. Tomato supplementation led to an overall FMD increase compared with the control period (P = .047 for repeated-measures 3 × 2 analysis of variance). At day 1, FMD was not significantly increased (P = .329). By day 15, tomato supplementation resulted in an increase in FMD by 3.3% ± 1.4%, whereas at the control arm, FMD declined by -0.5% ± 0.6% (P = .03); magnitudes of change are absolute FMD values. Total oxidative status decreased at the end of the supplementation period compared with baseline values (P = .038). Daily tomato paste consumption exerts a beneficial midterm but not short-term effect on endothelial function. Further studies are warranted to explore the effects of tomato paste on endothelial dilation in different age groups and comorbidities.

Laboratory-Scale Production of 13C-Labeled Lycopene and Phytoene by Bioengineered Escherichia coli

Consumption of tomato products has been associated with decreased risks of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, and therefore the biological functions of tomato carotenoids such as lycopene, phytoene, and phytofluene are being investigated. To study the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of these carotenoids, a bioengineered Escherichia coli model was evaluated for laboratory-scale production of stable isotope-labeled carotenoids. Carotenoid biosynthetic genes from Enterobacter agglomerans were introduced into the BL21Star(DE3) strain to yield lycopene. Over 96% of accumulated lycopene was in the all-trans form, and the molecules were highly enriched with 13C by 13C-glucose dosing. In addition, error-prone PCR was used to disrupt phytoene desaturase (crtI) function and create a phytoene-accumulating strain, which was also found to maintain the transcription of phytoene synthase (crtB). Phytoene molecules were also highly enriched with 13C when the 13C-glucose was the only carbon source. The development of this production model will provide carotenoid researchers a source of labeled tracer materials to further investigate the metabolism and biological functions of these carotenoids.

Lycopene as a natural antioxidant

A wide range of substances have been identified as antioxidants exerting their oxidation-inhibitory effects by different mechanisms 1, 2. However, the list of lipophilic natural oxidants is limited. Lycopene is thus an attractive natural compound for lipid scientists and technologist. As a strong singlet oxygen quencher it can stop lipid oxidation at an initiation stage. From a chemistry perspective, lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from 8 isoprene units, containing 11 conjugated and 2 non-conjugated double bonds between carbon atoms. Lycopene is a member of the carotenoid family, and the predominant source in the human diet comes from tomato and tomato-based products. The antioxidant capacity of tomato strongly depends on the content and bioavailability of lycopene in the fruit. There is strong correlation between lycopene content in tomatoes and antioxidant capacity 3. Lycopene exhibits a high physical quenching rate of singlet oxygen 4, which is directly related to its antioxidant activity. The rates for other lipophilic antioxidants, namely β-carotene and α-tocopherol, are about twofold and 100-fold lower. Taking into consideration the concentration of lycopene in human plasma (0.7 µM), it is worth emphasizing the high 1O2-quenching potency of this carotenoid. The quenching efficacy of lycopene is related in part to the opening of the β-ionone ring to an open chain form. Lycopene can also play a role in scavenging hypochlorous acid (HOCl) 5. This acid contributes to the pathology of atherosclerosis, inflammatory disease, respiratory stress, acute vasculitis, and cancer. The oxidation of lycopene via HOCl is accompanied by a change in its colour from red to colourless; the results of LC-MS analysis showed an increase of HOCl concentration in the sample containing lycopene. In the same sample, however, numerous products of lycopene oxidation were also observed. In the study of Bou et al. 6 in this issue of EJLST free radical scavengers, propyl galate, gallic acid and α-tocopherol all had the ability to decrease lycopene oxidation with α-tocopherol being the most active. The results of experimental studies suggest that lycopene can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by modulating low-density lipoprotein oxidation 7. Oxidised LDLs are highly atherogenic due to stimulation of foam cell formation. The antioxidant activity of lycopene in multilamellar liposomes is superior to other lipophilic natural antioxidants (e.g. α-tocopherol, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, β-carotene and lutein) 8. It is noteworthy that equimolar mixtures of carotenoids are more effective than any single compound alone. This strong synergistic effect is most pronounced with lycopene and lutein together 8. The damage of endothelial cells by oxidative stress is an important component to the aetiology of atherosclerosis. In the study of Tang et al. 9, lycopene decreased the oxidative injury of endothelial cells induced by H2O2, attenuated the expression of p53 and caspase-3 mRNA in injured cells, and diminished the apoptosis of injured cells. These findings can explain, in part, why lycopene prevents atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. The results of the study of Lee et al. 10 demonstrated that the consumption of tomato products with olive oil, but not sunflower oil, increased the antioxidant activity of human plasma. According to the FRAP assay, the antioxidant activity increased from 930 to 1118 µmol/L as an effect of consumption of tomato products with olive oil. Endogenous antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase can also be stimulated by lycopene 11. Lycopene in association with α-tocopherol enhances acyl platelet-activating factor (acyl-PAF) biosynthesis in endothelial cells during oxidative stress. Acyl-PAF exerts its beneficial role during the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis 12. Based on the study of Polidori et al. 13, the fraction of blood pumped out of the right and left ventricles with each heart beat in patients suffering from congestive heart failure (CHF) was directly correlated to plasma lycopene levels. Oxidised lycopene (i.e. a mixture of apolycopenones and diapocarotenedials) exhibited biological activity in terms of induction of detoxication phase 2 enzymes, such as glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), NADPH (a quinine acceptor) oxidoreductase (QR) and UDP-glucuronsyltransferase activation via the activation of electrophile/antioxidant response element transcription system (EpRE/ARE) 14. The effect of lycopene on lipid peroxidation in CV1-P monkey cells exposed to ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA) plus ascorbate was investigated by Matos et al. 15. Cells supplemented with lycopene showed a strong reduction in lipid peroxidation, suggesting that lycopene can protect mammalian cells against membrane damage and possibly play a protective role against tumour promotion associated with oxidative damage. In summary, there is strong evidence suggesting that the consumption of tomatoes and tomato-based products in our daily diets affords many health benefits, particularly from the perspective of assisting endogenous processes at reducing the oxidative stress in its various forms.

Tomatoes, lycopene-containing foods and cancer risk

Sir, We read with interest the recent review article by Key (2011), who concluded that the published results from the epidemiological studies suggest little or no association between the total intake of fruit and vegetables and the risk of common cancers, including colorectal, breast and prostate cancer. Although the association between food intake and cancer is still under intense debate, we believe that there is a growing body of clinical evidence suggesting that certain types of food, for example, those rich in lycopene such as tomatoes, might have beneficial effects on the development of certain cancers, especially prostate cancer. First and foremost, the most recent expert report issued by the World Cancer Research Fund, together with the American Institute for Cancer Research, has reviewed the strength of the evidence that causally correlates food intake to the risk of several forms of cancer. Basically, it has been concluded that a higher consumption of several plant foods might protect against cancers of various sites. In particular, foods rich in folate may protect against pancreatic cancer, those rich in carotenoids against cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx and lung cancer, those rich in β-carotene or vitamin C against oesophageal cancer, and those rich in lycopene against prostate cancer (World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007). With regard to the lycopene-containing foods, Giovannucci (1999) carried out a comprehensive review of the epidemiological data linking tomatoes, tomato-based food products and lycopene with the risk of cancer. Interestingly, it was found that the relative risks (RRs) for the comparison between individuals with higher vs those with lower dietary intakes of tomato-based food products or between individuals with higher vs those with lower plasma levels of lycopene were ⩽0.60, respectively, with a stronger evidence for a potential benefit for prostate cancer. The published data were also suggestive for potential benefits for lung, oesophagus, stomach, colorectal, pancreas, breast and cervix cancers, although a direct cause–effect relationship could not be definitively assessed (Giovannucci, 1999). A large cross-sectional study was conducted in 2002, including patients below age 80 years with incident, histologically confirmed cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx (n=754), oesophagus (n=304), colorectum (n=1953), breast (n=2529), ovary (n=1031), as well as over 5000 patients below age 80 years with acute, non-neoplastic, non-hormone-related diseases. The analysis of the data showed that the multivariate RR of oral, pharyngeal and oesophageal cancer decreased across subsequent levels of lycopene intake to reach 0.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.4–1.0) for oral and pharyngeal, and 0.7 (95% CI 0.4–1.1) for oesophageal cancer in the highest quintile of intake (La Vecchia, 2002). In the same year, Giovannucci (2002) further reviewed the published epidemiological studies of tomatoes and prostate cancer, and concluded that a high tomato or lycopene consumption might provide up to 40% reduction in the risk of prostate cancer. In a recent meta-analysis of 21 observational studies, Etminan et al (2004) confirmed that tomatoes and lycopene-containing foods might have an anti-prostate cancer activity. Compared with non-frequent users of tomato products, the RR of prostate cancer among consumers of high amounts of raw tomato was 0.89 (95% CI 0.80–1.00). For a high intake of cooked tomato products, the corresponding RR was 0.81 (95% CI 0.71–0.92) (Etminan et al, 2004). More recently, the putative anti-prostate cancer activity of tomatoes and lycopene-containing foods was further supported by an experimental study, in which tomato diet significantly increased overall survival, delayed progression from prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia to adenocarcinoma, and decreased the incidence of poorly differentiated carcinoma in a model of transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (Pannellini et al, 2010). Moreover, in another experimental study, the investigators produced genetically modified tomatoes that overexpressed Lc and C1, that is, two regulatory genes encoding select transcription factors that control the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in mice. In such study, cancer-susceptible Trp 53−/− mice, which were supplemented with these genetically modified tomatoes rich in anthocyanins, showed a significant extension of their life span (Butelli et al, 2008). The outcome of this study is noteworthy, in that it paves the way to further research aimed at establishing whether lycopene, in combination with existing therapies, might be used as a natural compound for prevention and treatment of human cancer. Although a clear cause–effect relationship between tomato products, lycopene and cancer risk has not yet been established, and further research is urgently needed to draw a definitive conclusion, we believe that the accumulated literature suggests the possibility that a higher consumption of tomato products or lycopene is safe and may have potential benefits for lowering the risk of cancer as well as of other severe pathologies (e.g., atherosclerosis).

Tomato Consumption and Health: Emerging Benefits

Tomatoes and tomato products are one of the most familiar vegetables in the American diet. Quantitatively, they are the most consumed nonstarchy vegetable and are the most significant source of dietary lycopene; a powerful antioxidant that has greater bioavailability after cooking and processing (eg, canning). A large body of research supports an inverse relationship between consuming tomatoes and tomato products and risk of certain cancers, while emerging research is exploring the protective relationship between tomato intake and a host of conditions, including cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, ultraviolet light—induced skin damage, and cognitive dysfunction. Initial studies of tomato consumption and disease risk reduction focused on lycopene and antioxidant activity. More recent hypotheses recognize the advantages of the whole tomato; and hence, research on the role of tomato products in health and disease risk reduction extends beyond antioxidant function to include other protective mechanisms such as antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory functions. Increasing daily vegetable intake in the American diet offers the potential to yield significant health benefits. In addition to the specific benefits of tomato consumption, encouraging greater tomato and tomato product consumption may help increase overall vegetable intake because of their wide availability, well-established acceptability, cost-effectiveness, and convenience of multiple forms. Leveraging emerging science about tomatoes and tomato products may be one simple and effective strategy to help individuals increase vegetable intake, leading to improved overall eating patterns, and ultimately, better health.

Lack of effects of tomato products on endothelial function in human subjects: results of a randomised, placebo-controlled cross-over study

Epidemiological studies suggest that consumption of tomato products reduces the risk of CVD via antioxidant, hypocholesterolaemic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Although experimental data also describe beneficial effects on endothelial function, clinical data in human subjects are lacking. To test the hypothesis that tomato ingestion ameliorates endothelial function, we randomised healthy non-smoking postmenopausal women to consume a buttered roll with and without tomato purée (70 g) in a cross-over design. Endothelial-dependent flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and endothelial-independent nitro-mediated dilation of the brachial artery were assessed with high-resolution ultrasound (13 MHz linear array transducer). Acute (24 h) and long-term (7 d) effects were examined after daily consumption of the described meal. Nineteen volunteers completed the protocol and provided technically suitable ultrasound measurement data. Plasma lycopene levels increased from 0·30 (sem 0·04) (baseline) to 0·42 (sem 0·04) and to 0·74 (sem 0·06) μm after 24 h and 7 d, respectively, with tomato purée consumption. These data indicated an effective absorption of the tomato product. However, both acute and long-term tomato purée consumption had no effects on endothelium-dependent or -independent dilation of the brachial artery. In addition, we found no correlation between lycopene plasma levels and FMD. In conclusion, consumption of tomato products associated with a significant increase in plasma lycopene levels had no effects on endothelial function in healthy postmenopausal women.

DELIVERY OF LYCOPENE TO PHYSIOLOGICALLY RELEVANT VASCULAR CELLS

ABSTRACT Lycopene most likely contributes to the positive health effects of tomatoes on the cardiovascular system. However, elucidation of underlying cellular mechanisms is hampered by the intricate solubility of lycopene in aqueous solutions. Cells relevant to the cardiovascular system, including bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs), the monocytic cell line THP‐1, and RAT‐1 fibroblasts, were treated for various time periods (0–72 h) with different concentrations of lycopene (1, 5, and 10 µM), solubilized either in tetrahydrofuran (THF) or micelles as solvents. Incubation of all three cell types led to a concentration‐ and time‐dependent increase in cellular lycopene content. Both vehicles tested, THF and micelles, proved equally effective in the delivery of lycopene to cells. A marked difference in the amount of lycopene incorporated was observed among the various cell types. Compared with THP‐1 cells, the uptake of lycopene using both solvents was higher in BAECs and RAT‐1 fibroblasts for all concentrations and time points tested. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSEpidemiological data indicate a beneficial effect for consumption of tomato products in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Only limited data are available on the cellular uptake of lycopene in vascular cells. Lycopene was successfully delivered to different cells relevant for the cardiovascular system. These results represent an important prerequisite for the study of molecular and cellular mechanisms by which lycopene may exert its beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system.

Digestive Stability of Xanthophylls Exceeds That of Carotenes As Studied in a Dynamic in Vitro Gastrointestinal System1–3

Epidemiological studies have suggested that high consumption of tomato products is associated with a lower risk for chronic diseases. To exert their health effect, the phytochemicals of tomatoes have to be bioavailable and therefore it implies their stability through the digestion process. Here, we assessed the digestive stability of the red-pigmented lycopene and other carotenoids brought in nutritional quantity within different food matrixes, using the TNO gastrointestinal tract model (TIM). This multicompartmental dynamic system accurately reproduces the main parameters of gastric and small intestinal digestion in human. In vitro digestions of a standard meal containing red tomato (RT), yellow tomato (devoid of lycopene), or lycopene beadlets were performed. Zeaxanthin and lutein were stable throughout artificial digestions, whereas β-carotene and all-trans lycopene were degraded (∼30 and 20% loss at the end of digestion, respectively) in the jejunal and ileal compartments. The recovery of β-carotene in the digesta of the RT meal was significantly lower than that in the yellow one, showing a food matrix effect. In the same way, until 180 min of digestion, the recovery percentages of all-trans lycopene from RT were significantly lower than those issued from the supplement. Isomeric conformation also influenced the stability of carotenoids, 5-cis lycopene being the most stable isomer followed by all-trans and 9-cis. No trans-cis isomerization of lycopene occurred in the TIM. By using a relevant dynamic in vitro system, this study allowed us to gain further insight into the parameters influencing the digestive stability of carotenoids, and therefore their bioavailability, in humans.