Consumption-based Inventories Research Articles

Regionalised greenhouse gas emissions from food production in South-Eastern Australia

Agriculture is a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHG). Agriculture GHG emissions are often quantified at national or state level, with local-scale emissions not available to inform the state's regional policies and local government and community action to mitigate climate change. We present spatial inventories of GHG from food production for the state of New South Wales in Australia for methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and the sum of the two GHG in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 -e). We used a top-down approach to disaggregate emissions from state level reported in the State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventories to emissions at local government area level using publicly available agricultural census data. Our estimates showed that regional local government areas accounted for 18,522,010 t of CO 2− e, 572,707 t of CH 4 and 10,785 t of N 2 O emissions for food production, while metropolitan local government areas (Greater Sydney) accounted for 104,057 t of CO 2− e, 2313 t of CH 4 and 151 t of N 2 O emissions for food production. Livestock emissions dominated most regional local government areas, contributing on average (median) 14 times more emission than cropping emissions. Our study applies an approach for a transparent estimate of local-scale emissions consistent with the Australian national inventory. To supplement the food production emissions inventory, a spatial food consumption-based inventory using emission factors derived by Hendrie et al. (2016) is presented to illustrate the importance of engaging cities when addressing GHG emissions from food systems. Sources and spatial trends in food production-based and consumption-based emissions in New South Wales are addressed to guide policymakers and communities on opportunities to mitigate associated emissions to address climate goals.

An Introductory Review of Input-Output Analysis in Sustainability Sciences Including Potential Implications of Aggregation

Input-output analysis has become a widely established method in sustainability sciences. It is primarily used in macroeconomic footprint analyses for allocating an economy’s externalities among the agents in that economy based on the agents’ input-output interdependencies. However, databases for input-output analyses are commonly compiled by aggregating data. Aggregation of input-output data inevitably leads to a loss of information and in some instances can lead to misinformed decision-making. The goal of this paper is to provide a simple hands-on numerical introduction to input-output analysis including the potential implications of data aggregation in an original manner. First, the calculation of production-based and consumption-based inventories is introduced based on a dummy 2 × 2 input-output table. Next, the inventories of the 2 × 2 input-output table are compared with the production-based and consumption-based inventories of a corresponding non-aggregated 4 × 4 input-output table. A comparison of the inventories of both dummy input-output tables allows for an exemplary demonstration of inaccurate allocation as a result of data aggregation and to conclude on potential implications for decision-making. Overall, this work offers a succinct and numerically substantiated introductory review of input-output analysis for practitioners in sustainability sciences including the potential implications of aggregation of input-output data. Its simplistic approach sets this work apart from other publications on aggregation in input-output analysis that are founded in economics or econometrics.

Greenhouse gas emissions in British Columbia: Production versus consumption accounting from 2010 to 2015

As a result of carbon-pricing policies, a number of jurisdictions across the world claim to be decoupling their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from their gross domestic product (GDP). In British Columbia (BC), Canada, in what appears to be decoupling from 2007 to 2018, GHGs with respect to GDP declined by 16% ( BC Government 2020 ). This finding, however, is the result of a production-based method of accounting—the predominant global approach for allocating emissions—and not a consumption-based method. In this study, we compare these two accounting methods with respect to British Columbian decoupling. We calculate consumption-based emissions through a multi-regional input-output analysis from 2010 to 2015. In our results for 2015, we find total consumption emissions of 82.5Mt of CO 2 e; when compared to the total production emissions of 73.7Mt of CO 2 e, we find BC to be a net consumer of emissions by 8.8Mt of CO 2 e for 2015. Although BC has had this net consumer status since at least 2004 ( Dobson and Fellows, 2017 ), this orientation is in decline primarily due to the decarbonizing trends of China and the USA. In short, for BC from 2010–2015, on a per capita basis, both production and consumption accounts of emissions declined (even as GDP rose), but per capita consumption accounts declined more than production accounts and mostly due to emissions reductions from trade partners. Finally, this study may be of interest to policymakers and scientists, and like other scholars, we recommend that consumption-based inventories accompany production-based accounts when designing and assessing global GHG mitigation policy.

Large inter-city inequality in consumption-based CO2 emissions for China's pearl river basin cities

Cities are leading carbon mitigation but are heterogeneous in their mitigation policies due to different socioeconomic backgrounds. Given that cities are increasingly inextricably linked, formulating mitigation policies of different cities cannot be easily achieved without comprehensive carbon inventories, who taking the inter-city supply chains into account. The Pearl River Basin is one of the important economic zones in China, with huge disparity in its cities, but very limited information is available on their consumption-based CO2 emissions. To fill this gap, we compiled a consumption-based inventory of 47 cities in the Basin for 2012. We found that the total consumption-based emissions of 47 cities was 933.8 Mt, accounting for 13.1% of China's emissions. There were huge differences in the consumption-based emissions, ranging from 3.6 Mt (Heyuan City) to 153.1 Mt (Shenzhen City). The consumption-based emissions were highly concentrated in the largest seven cities, which accounted for 52.8% of the total emissions of the Basin. The consumption-based emissions per capita also varied greatly, from 1.2 to 14.5 tons per capita. Large scale infrastructure was the biggest driving force for most cities, resulting in 42.1% to 75.6% of the emissions. At sector-level, construction, heavy industry and services were leading in emissions, contributing more than 80% of emissions. The major inter-city carbon transfers occurred within upstream cities in the developing regions and downstream cities in the Pearl River Delta respectively, instead of the transfers between upstream and downstream cities. The findings highlight that the regional mitigation strategies could mainly focus on cities in intra-province boundary, rather than inter-province boundary, and also the city-level mitigation strategies should pay attention to the key emission sectors and drivers in respect of the heterogeneity of cities.

Tracing the Uncertain Chinese Mercury Footprint within the Global Supply Chain Using a Stochastic, Nested Input–Output Model

A detailed understanding of the mercury footprint at subnational entity levels can facilitate the implementation of the "Minamata Convention on Mercury", especially for China, the largest mercury emitter worldwide. Some provinces of China have more than 100 million people, with economic activities and energy consumption levels comparable to those of smaller G7 countries. We constructed a stochastic, nested multiregion input-output (MRIO) model, which regionalized the China block in the EXIOBASE global-scale MRIO table, to model the mercury footprint associated with global supply chains spanning China's regions and other countries. The results show that Tianjin, Shanghai, and Ningxia had the highest per capita mercury footprint in China, which was comparable to the footprint of Australia and Norway and exceeded the footprint of most other countries. Some developed regions in China (e.g., Guangdong, Jiangsu) had higher mercury final product-based inventories (FBI) and consumption-based inventories (CBI) than production-based inventories (PBI), emphasizing the role of these regions as centers of both consumption and economic control. Uncertainties of Chinese provincial mercury footprint varied from 8% to 34%. Our research also revealed that international and inter-regional final product and intermediate product trades reshape the mercury emissions of Chinese provinces and other countries to a certain extent.

Agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions of major economies: Consumption-vs. production-based perspectives

Agriculture is one of the most important sectors for global anthropogenic methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. While much attention has been paid to production-side agricultural non-CO2 greenhouse gas (ANGHG) emissions, less is known about the emissions from the consumption-based perspective. This paper aims to explore the characteristics of agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions of global major economies by using the latest emission data from the Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) and the recently available global multi-regional input-output model from the World Input-Output Database (WIOD). The results show that in 2014, the 42 major economies together accounted for 60.7% and 65.0% of global total direct and embodied ANGHG emissions, respectively. The consumption-based ANGHG emissions in the US, Japan, and the EU were much higher than their production-based emissions, while the converse was true for Brazil, Australia, and India. The global-average embodied ANGHG emissions per capita was 0.7 t CO2-eq, but major developing countries such as China, India, Indonesia and Mexico were all below this average value. We find that the total transfer of embodied ANGHG emissions via international trade was 622.4 Mt CO2-eq, 11.9% of the global total. China was the largest exporter of embodied ANGHG emissions, while the US was the largest importer. Most developed economies were net importers of embodied emissions. Mexico-US, China-US, China-EU, China-Japan, China-Russia, Brazil-EU, India-EU and India-US formed the main bilateral trading pairs of embodied emission flows. Examining consumption-based inventories can be useful for understanding the impacts of final demand and international trade on agricultural GHG emissions and identifying appropriate mitigation potentials along global supply chains.

Implementing city-level carbon accounting: A comparison between Madrid and London

A change of focus from the current production-based Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions inventory to an integrated production-consumption carbon accounting system would improve the quality of city-level inventories. London is one of the few cities in the world which has reported its GHG emission inventory using Consumption-Based (CB) methodologies. Although Madrid has adopted the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC) to report their GHG emissions, the city has never officially reported its GHG inventory using CB methodologies. Thus, the goal of this study is to analyze the challenges that must be faced by the production-based GHG emission inventory of Madrid in order to estimate GHG emissions from their supply chains and final consumers using the London's GHG emissions inventory experience. From the comparison between the 2010 GHG emission inventories of Madrid and London some challenges could emerge that Madrid's decision-makers might need to face regarding urban carbon accounting practices. As results, this paper shows that if GHG emissions from urban supply chains and final consumers are considered, the total GHG emissions reported by the Madrid inventory could double. This increase is similar to what London experienced when comparing production-based and integrated production-consumption GHG inventories. Besides, some difficulties related to lack of information were found when estimating GHG emissions associated with those goods and services consumed in Madrid. It would be useful to develop a full CB inventory using environmentally extended input-output (EEIO) matrices, more city-level primary data, and local cradle-to-grave factors, following the methodology applied by the London inventory. These actions would allow a more accurate calculation of urban supply chains and final consumer GHG emissions in Madrid. Finally, further research is recommended in order to improve the current knowledge about the contributions of the energy, transport and waste sectors to GHG emissions in both, Madrid and London.

Carbon dioxide emissions and international trade at the turn of the millennium

We present a new dataset of geographical production-, final (embodied) production-, and consumption-based carbon dioxide emission inventories, covering 78 regions and 55 sectors from 1997 to 2011. We extend previous work both in terms of time span and in bridging from geographical to embodied production and, ultimately, to consumption. We analyse the recent evolution of emissions, the development of carbon efficiency of the global economy, and the role of international trade. As the distribution of responsibility for emissions across countries is key to the adoption and implementation of international environmental agreements and regulations, the final production- and consumption-based inventories developed here provide a valuable extension to more traditional geographical production-based criteria.

The Political Feasibility of Consumption-Based Carbon Accounting

ABSTRACTA consumption-based inventory can represent a promising accounting method for more effective collective action against carbon emissions. However, the current scientific debate has not yet proposed comprehensive analyses of the political features of consumption-based accounting. In particular, the ultimate objective of this article is to investigate the political feasibility of consumption-based accounting. The article argues that political feasibility is fundamental for gaining support and eventually fostering the development of widely acceptable, stable and effective consumption-based accounting systems. Specifically, the article first briefly investigates the potential of consumption-based carbon inventories. It then frames and scrutinizes political feasibility according to the normative and positive perspectives relevant to understanding the actual possibility of shifting from the current production- to consumption-based accounting. Finally the article, in light of the evidence provided by the analysis carried out, takes a prescriptive turn and indicates how politically feasible governance systems for consumption-based accounting may be forged and successfully put into practice.

Norm Conflict in Climate Governance: Greenhouse Gas Accounting and the Problem of Consumption

Accounting rules used for compiling national greenhouse gas inventories play a significant role in constituting the global climate change regime's character. These rules have major political and policy implications. Production-based accounting and national production-based emissions targets contribute to the deadlock in climate negotiations by deflecting attention away from consumption patterns and by accentuating tensions among the climate regime's underlying norms. These dynamics contribute to inefficient domestic mitigation policies, conflict over the norm of “common but differentiated responsibility,” weak international agreements, and continued political neglect of consumption as a driver of emissions. In contrast, consumption-based emissions accounting would shift attention from production to consumption. Consumption-based targets could potentially provide an alternative path by which differentiated responsibility could be implemented. Adoption of consumption-based inventories might also prompt reappraisal of underlying norms and opposing conceptions of justice among states.

A Consumption-Based GHG Inventory for the U.S. State of Oregon

Many U.S. states conduct greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories to inform their climate change planning efforts. These inventories usually follow a production-based method adapted from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. States could also take a consumption-based perspective, however, and estimate all emissions released to support consumption in their state, regardless of where the emissions occur. In what may be the first such comprehensive inventory conducted for a U.S. state, we find that consumption-based emissions for Oregon are 47% higher than those released in-state. This finding implies that Oregon's contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) is considerably higher than traditional production-based methods would suggest. Furthermore, the consumption-based inventory helps highlight the role of goods and services (and associated purchasing behaviors) more so than do production-based methods. Accordingly, a consumption-based perspective opens new opportunities for many states and their local government partners to reduce GHG emissions, such as initiatives to advance lower-carbon public sector or household consumption, that are well within their sphere of influence. State and local governments should consider conducting consumption-based GHG inventories and adopting consumption-based emission reductions targets in order to broaden the reach and effectiveness of state and local actions in reducing global GHG emissions. Consumption-based frameworks should be viewed as a complement to, but not a substitute for, production-based (in-state) GHG emissions inventories and targets.

Inventory Development and Input-Output Model of U.S. Land Use: Relating Land in Production to Consumption

As populations and demands for land-intensive products, e.g., cattle and biofuels, increase the need to understand the relationship between land use and consumption grows. This paper develops a production-based inventory of land use (i.e., the land used to produce goods) in the U.S. With this inventory an input-output analysis is used to create a consumption-based inventory of land use. This allows for exploration of links between land used in production to the consumption of particular goods. For example, it is possible to estimate the amount of cropland embodied in processed foods or healthcare services. As would be expected, agricultural and forestry industries are the largest users of land in the production-based inventory. Similarly, we find that processed foods and forest products are the largest users of land in the consumption-based inventory. Somewhat less expectedly this work finds that the majority of manufacturing and service industries, not typically associated with land use, require substantial amounts of land to produce output due to the purchase of food and other agricultural and wood-based products in the supply chain. The quantitative land use results of this analysis could be integrated with qualitative metrics such as weighting schemes designed to reflect environmental impact or life cycle impact assessment methods.

From production-based to consumption-based national emission inventories

Under the United National Framework Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are required to submit National Emission Inventories (NEI) to benchmark reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Depending on the definition and system boundary of the NEI, the mitigation options and priorities may vary. The territorial system boundary used by the UNFCCC has been critiqued for not including international transportation and potentially causing carbon leakage. To address these issues, past literature has argued in favour of using consumption-based NEI in climate policy. This article discusses several issues in moving from the standard production-based NEI to consumption-based NEI. First, two distinct accounting approaches for constructing consumption-based NEI are presented. The approaches differ in the allocation of intermediate consumption of imported products. Second, a consistent method of weighting production-based and consumption-based NEI is discussed. This is an extension of the previous literature on shared responsibility to NEI. Third, due to increased uncertainty and a wide system boundary it may be difficult to implement consumption-based NEI directly into climate policy. Several alternative options for incorporating consumption-based inventories into climate policy are discussed.