Self-regulation Constructs Research Articles

Unlocking CLIL success: exploring the interplay between students’ self-regulation levels, linguistic challenges and learning outcomes in Hong Kong secondary education

The pedagogical approach—Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)—has been widely adopted around the globe with its dual aims of developing students’ second language (L2) proficiency and mastering content knowledge simultaneously. However, its effectiveness remains inconsistent. This inconsistency has led researchers to call for an investigation into the perspectives of CLIL students to understand the factors behind the success and failure of CLIL implementation. To address this gap, this study explores CLIL students’ perspectives through the lens of self-regulation and examines the relationships between CLIL students’ self-regulation levels, linguistic challenges, and learning outcomes. Involving 167 junior secondary students from three schools in Hong Kong that adopted different CLIL models in Hong Kong, the study revealed moderate self-regulation levels and varying linguistic challenges among CLIL students, with listening being identified as the most difficult skill. A significant, moderately positive correlation was found between self-regulation levels and perceived linguistic challenges. Multiple regression analysis also found that motivation was a key predictor of both L2 proficiency and content subject achievement, while other self-regulation constructs (self-preparation, self-monitoring, and self-reflection) showed non-significant predictive values. Pedagogical implications are provided to develop students’ self-regulation skills and address perceived linguistic challenges, ultimately enhancing the learning experience and outcomes for CLIL students of diverse abilities.

Autorregulação da aprendizagem e autonomia promovidas em práticas educativas docentes de Relações Públicas

Abstract This article presents a survey carried out with teachers and/or coordinators of Public Relations courses at Higher Education Institutions in Brazil that sought to identify whether educational practices can be given new meanings through the promotion of self-regulation of learning and student autonomy. Through a literature review on the research object, the article's originality was noted. The research carried out was qualitative and considered quantifiable data when describing and analyzing the empirical data collected in the field through two stages and the use of two instruments: (i) questionnaire - structured with 20 multiple choice questions formulated based on the Likert scale and which had 18 participants; and (ii) structured interview - presented with 12 open questions and had 13 respondents (among the 18 participants in the previous stage). The sample indicated results that were grouped into three categories of analysis and twelve axes. It could be seen that the sample participants identified the importance of promoting self-regulation and autonomy in the teaching and learning process in higher education and understand that it is necessary to obtain due knowledge about the constructs of selfregulation of learning so that they can bring other contributions on the topic little explored and applied. It is expected that new studies will be presented based on the results presented in the research developed that sought to verify whether Public Relations teaching practices can be redefined through the promotion of self-regulation and autonomy.

The mediating role of metacognitive awareness in the relationship between critical thinking and self-regulation

Higher-order thinking skills have become one of the most current and essential issues in educational research and attracted researchers' attention. The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of metacognitive awareness in the relationship between self-regulation and critical thinking. The sample consisted of 460 teacher candidates, and the data collection tools were the Self–regulation Inventory, the Critical Thinking Standards Scale and the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. The data were collected through an online survey platform, and mediation analyses were conducted to test the mediating role of metacognitive awareness in the relationship between critical thinking and self-regulation behaviors. The results revealed that these constructs were significantly related to each other, and metacognitive awareness was found as a partial mediator variable between self-regulation and critical thinking. Based on these results, it can be concluded that these constructs have a complex structure that needs to be investigated in future studies. The results of the current study suggest that the constructs of self-regulation and metacognitive awareness should be taken into consideration to enhance individuals' critical thinking skills.

How many and what mechanisms are needed to explain self-regulatory functions in personality dynamics: Toward a model based on the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits.

We propose a model of basic self-regulatory mechanisms that integrates descriptive-structural and dynamic-explanatory approaches to personality. Using a structural way of thinking and based on a structural model of personality (the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits), we deduced two orthogonal (distinct) but interactive mechanisms: (a) Impulse Control responsible for controlling automatically activated impulses, urges, and affective reactions and (b) Self-Motivation responsible for regulating intentions in goal-oriented behaviors. Their operation depends on both situational and dispositional factors and optimal functioning of both mechanisms is needed for effective regulation of behavior. People can also be characterized by relatively stable levels of Impulse Control and Self-Motivation as dispositions, which depend on temperamental predispositions but can develop incoherently with them due to the impact of environmental factors. Combinations of Impulse Control and Self-Motivation as dispositions result in personality types, which differ in their adaptiveness. Importantly, Impulse Control and Self-Motivation mechanisms reveal substantial similarities to other self-regulatory constructs described in the literature, particularly those included in Block and Block's as well as Kuhl's theories. The contribution of our paper may serve as an example of how to apply the descriptive-structural approach to develop a dynamic-explanatory model of personality.

You Can't Compare If You Don't Prepare: Differential Item Functioning In Measures of Grit, STEM Self-Regulation, and Motivation

Researchers developing questionnaire measures of personality, motivation, and self-regulation constructs related to students’ achievement and persistence in STEM or other fields rarely have examined whether the items on the measures used are functioning differently across groups, which is necessary for accurate group comparison. The present study assessed differential item functioning (DIF) in two frequently-used measures of such constructs, the Grit-S, the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), and a new measure of long-term grit, using a sample of 1,146 ninth and tenth-grade students in the U.S.A. We also assessed gender and racial differences in the patterns of the relationships among the latent constructs, something rarely reported in the literature. Differences in such patterns indicate that the concurrent validity of the construct scores could vary across different groups. Results indicated that numerous items exhibited gender DIF on the Grit-S but not on the MSLQ or long-term grit measure. There were fewer DIF items across racial groups. Patterns of relations among the variables, in general, were weaker for females than males. There were fewer racial groups differences in the patterns of correlations. We discuss the implications of the DIF findings for future research on group comparisons.

Self-Regulation in Preschool: Examining Its Factor Structure and Associations With Pre-academic Skills and Social-Emotional Competence.

Self-regulation in early childhood is an important predictor of success across a variety of indicators in life, including health, well-being, and earnings. Although conceptually self-regulation has been defined as multifaceted, previous research has not investigated whether there is conceptual and empirical overlap between the factors that comprise self-regulation or if they are distinct. In this study, using a bifactor model, we tested the shared and unique variance among self-regulation constructs and prediction to pre-academic and social-emotional skills. The sample included 932 preschool children (Mage = 48 months, SD = 6.55; 49% female), their parents, and their teachers in the United States. Children’s self-regulation was assessed using measures of executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and emotion regulation. The bifactor model demonstrated a common overarching self-regulation factor, as well as distinct executive function and emotion regulation factors. The common overarching self-regulation factor and executive function predicted children’s pre-academic (i.e., mathematics and literacy) and social-emotional skills. The emotion regulation factor predicted children’s social-emotional skills. Identifying the shared and unique aspects of self-regulation may have important implications for supporting children’s regulatory skills as well as their success in school.

O OLHAR DE GRADUANDOS SOBRE A PROCRASTINAÇÃO ACADÊMICA: CONHECENDO E INTERVINDO

ABSTRACT: This article aims to analyze the view of undergraduate health students concerning academic procrastination and how they perceived an intervention program aimed at self-management of the university experience as a coping strategy. It adopted Bandura's Cognitive Social Theory as its theoretical foundation, mainly the constructs of self-regulation of learning and self-efficacy. The research involved 299 students from the Physical Education, Physiotherapy, Nutrition, Occupational Therapy, Psychology, and Social Work courses being carried out in three stages: 1) Application of an Academic Procrastination Scale questionnaire and an identification form for the participants; 2) intervention in small groups in the form of workshops based on conversation circles; 3) individualized intervention. It was concluded that procrastination is a behavior present in the students' daily lives and that it becomes important to create spaces for reflection and learning to experiment with a strategy that facilitates coping. The group intervention showed potency, as it made it possible to listen and exchange experiences. In it, the participants were able to analyze procrastination beyond the individual aspects

Predictive values of the structure of the self-regulatory construct in L2 learning of the gifted

The aim of this meta-analysis is to take a small step forward from the separate observation of the self-regulatory construct and the relationship of variables that seek to explain it, define its structure more clearly and make it available in practice. For this purpose, the question arises regarding the relationship between personality traits and motivation as variables, which are shown in a number of studies as important for self-regulation in terms of its contribution to success in mastering a foreign language (L2). As mentioned, metaanalysis was used as a method. The selection of studies included in the metaanalysis is as follows: Out of 175 research papers dealing with the topic of selfregulation in learning L2 that covered 49.821 students, 17 papers were selected in the second round, which covered 4.263 students who were academically gifted and learned L2. In the third step of selection, only three papers remained, which could be compared by characteristics (goals, sample, variables, respondents...), and which examined issues relevant to this paper, i.e. the relationship between personality traits, motivation to learn L2 and achievements in a language for specific purposes. The total number of respondents was 1.263, with 711 of them being academically gifted students who were learning a Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). The theoretical context of the research is the Self-Determination Theory, i.e., an understanding of the spontaneous development of the individual's predispositions (intrinsic motivation and internalization) when basic psychological needs are met in the function of interpersonal dynamics and social settings (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and Sternberg's Theory of Mental Self-Government. Previous reflections and comparisons with theoretical assumptions and research findings are partly the basis for answering the questions posed in this analysis, as they provide a framework for understanding the structure of the self-regulatory construct. Thus, the quest for the state of relations between the observed variables, which are important for self-regulation and sufficient to formulate a model of self-regulation, did not provide sufficient indications that they could be considered safe in assessing the effects of defining self-regulation constructs. Also, the relationships between the gifted and others were researched, starting from the observation of the relationship between personality traits and motivation. The intention was to determine how many personality traits have proven to be good predictors for self-regulation of learning (success - average and in L2) of gifted and other students. Related to the above is the observation of the issue of their mutual relationship and scope in terms of their predictive value for opportunities to encourage the gifted and other students to realize achievements in learning a language for specific purposes. Thus, it could be concluded, that the dimensions of motivation generally achieve correlations of the highest intensity with Intellect and Agreeableness, while relations with other dimensions are somewhat weaker. This supports the conclusion that Intellect and Agreeableness as personality traits are important for the construct of self-regulation, and supports the aforementioned theoretical positions of Sternberg within the Theory of Mental Self-Government, for which these findings are only the initial step, indicating that it would be worth going in that direction.

Predicting Academic School Readiness and Risk Status from Different Assessment Approaches and Constructs of Early Self-Regulation

Predicting Academic School Readiness and Risk Status from Different Assessment Approaches and Constructs of Early Self-Regulation

An integrated model for exploring college students’ engagement and competence development in flipped learning using partial least squares path modeling

ABSTRACT While flipped learning has attempted to explain the benefits of technology applied to educational settings, this study aims to validate research questions and test the theory of the learning strategies in flipped learning. A self-designed questionnaire, consisting of 17 critical indicators of online self-regulation, project-based learning and 5-competence development, was administered to collect data from 87 college students in China. The partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze the relative factors. The results indicated that an integrated model, combining online self-regulation and project-based learning, provided a marginally better explanatory power; project-based learning had a better prediction of 5-competence development than online self-regulation. An integrated model is proposed to detect the latent relationships among the data with structural equation modeling (SEM). The SEM provides a clear picture of the relations among the variables, and shows that online “Help seeking” in MOOC lecture videos and engagement in “Teamwork” in class are the key indicators of student engagement in flipped learning. This study adopted an innovative approach which emphasizes the diagnosis of students’ engagement, and proposes an integrated model combining online self-regulation and project-based learning constructs for a theoretical framework to predict learning performance in flipped learning.

RELATIONS BETWEEN INSTRUCTOR FEEDBACK, SELF-REGULATION, ASSIGNMENT COMPLETION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN THAI HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS

Purpose – Assignments have been linked with various benefits, including a higher quality of learning and academic achievement. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between assignment completion and academic achievement in higher education. Specifically, it investigated the impact of instructor feedback and three constructs of self-regulation (self-efficacy, time management, and help-seeking) on assignment completion (time spent on assignments and number of assignments completed) and academic achievement. Methodology – The study employed a correlational research design and a self-report survey. Data was collected from 1,106 undergraduate students in six universities in Thailand through a convenience sampling approach. Structural equation modelling was used to establish the strength of the relationships among the constructs of the model. Findings – The number of assignments completed was found to have a strong association with academic achievement. Time management was the strongest predictor of the number of assignments completed as well as time spent on assignments. Time management was also the mediator between self-efficacy and the number of assignments completed. However, help-seeking was negatively associated with both the number of assignments completed and academic achievement. Significance – These results have educational implications, and should be helpful for instructors, instructional designers and educators who may use the information to offer undergraduate students appropriate learning tools, strategies and environments for supporting assignment completion and academic achievement.

Young University Students' Academic Self-Regulation Profiles and Their Associated Procrastination: Autonomous Functioning Requires Self-Regulated Operations.

Students’ autonomous self-regulation requires not only self-motivation but also volition or transforming motivation into specific behavioral intentions and following through. Self-regulation includes self-motivation (i.e., goal setting, learning from mistakes) and volitional regulation (i.e., strategic decision making). Furthermore, individual differences, like trait-level perseverance, significantly influence both motivation and volition. Procrastination has been defined as a volitional self-regulation problem, which involves delaying what one had intended to do, in spite of being motivated, and regardless of anticipating adverse consequences. Thus, it is a tendency toward dysregulated behavior - which may stabilize with age - in which subpar self-regulation may lead to procrastination. As a form of dysregulation, procrastination adversely affects young people’s autonomy and well-being by limiting their personal growth. Previous research has confirmed a negative relationship between self-regulation and procrastination. However, more precision is demanded in: (a) examining the intertwined roles of motivational and volitional aspects of self-regulation for procrastination, and (b) distinguishing between different medium, and between medium and high levels of self-regulation. Consequently, it has been suggested that this could be accomplished by means of person-centered analyses, aimed at identifying distinct naturally occurring students’ self-regulation profiles. These profiles would inform differentiated pedagogical approaches to promote self-regulation strategies counteracting procrastination tendencies. We used cluster analysis to identify academic self-regulation profiles and analyze their relationships with procrastination. Participants were 994 young university students from one public and one private university in Catalonia (41.0% men, 58.4% women, and 0.5% non-binary gender). Their age ranged from 18 to 24 years (M = 19.69, SD = 1.41). Sampling method was intentional, with proportional quotas by sex, academic year, and area of knowledge. The instrument used for data collection incorporated the Short Spanish Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SSSRQ), which includes four dimensions: perseverance, learning from mistakes, goal setting, and decision making; and the Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), which considers three dimensions: decisional procrastination, implemental delay and lateness. Results obtained by means of cluster analysis distinguished between high and low academic self-regulation profiles, and also between these and two different medium self-regulation profiles, each with specific emphases on particular volitional shortcomings (i.e., weaknesses in decision-making skills and perseverance). These profiles and their relations with procrastination dimensions allow a joint evaluation via structural equation modeling (SEM) to test cognitive motivational strategies (goal setting, decision making, learning from mistakes, and decisional procrastination) together with behavioral aspects (perseverance, implemental delay), considered in the constructs of academic self-regulation and pure procrastination. From this joint evaluation, guidelines are suggested for promoting autonomy among young university students to the detriment of procrastination, thereby – and in accordance with previous research – enhancing students’ well-being and growth.

A Culturally Relevant Smartphone-Delivered Physical Activity Intervention for African American Women: Development and Initial Usability Tests of Smart Walk.

BackgroundSmart Walk is a culturally relevant, social cognitive theory–based, smartphone-delivered intervention designed to increase physical activity (PA) and reduce cardiometabolic disease risk among African American (AA) women.ObjectiveThis study aimed to describe the development and initial usability testing results of Smart Walk.MethodsSmart Walk was developed in 5 phases. Phases 1 to 3 focused on initial intervention development, phase 4 involved usability testing, and phase 5 included intervention refinement based on usability testing results. In phase 1, a series of 9 focus groups with 25 AA women (mean age 38.5 years, SD 7.8; mean BMI 39.4 kg/m2, SD 7.3) was used to identify cultural factors associated with PA and ascertain how constructs of social cognitive theory can be leveraged in the design of a PA intervention. Phase 2 included the analysis of phase 1 qualitative data and development of the structured PA intervention. Phase 3 focused on the technical development of the smartphone app used to deliver the intervention. Phase 4 consisted of a 1-month usability trial of Smart Walk (n=12 women; mean age 35.0 years, SD 8.5; mean BMI 40 kg/m2, SD 5.0). Phase 5 included refinement of the intervention based on the usability trial results.ResultsThe 5-phase process resulted in the development of the Smart Walk smartphone-delivered PA intervention. This PA intervention was designed to target social cognitive theory constructs of behavioral capability, outcome expectations, social support, self-efficacy, and self-regulation and address deep structure sociocultural characteristics of collectivism, racial pride, and body appearance preferences of AA women. Key features of the smartphone app included (1) personal profile pages, (2) multimedia PA promotion modules (ie, electronic text and videos), (3) discussion boards, and (4) a PA self-monitoring tool. Participants also received 3 PA promotion text messages each week.ConclusionsThe development process of Smart Walk was designed to maximize the usability, cultural relevance, and impact of the smartphone-delivered PA intervention.

Force of Habit: the Role of Routinized, Automatic Behaviors along the Path of Self-Regulation and Alcohol-Related Problems.

Dual-Process models of self-regulation suggest different facets of self-regulation predict adaptive (e.g., academics, exercise) and maladaptive (e.g., drinking) behaviors. Engagement in these behaviors may ultimately result in automatic habits that either promote or inhibit alcohol use and related problems. This study tested a structural equation model of relationships between self-regulation constructs, health and drinking habits and automaticity, effortful inhibition, and alcohol problems in a college student sample (N = 405). As expected, effortful control was positively associated with health habits, which were positively associated with health automaticity. Automaticity was inversely associated with effortful inhibition. Thus, effortful control was indirectly associated with less effortful inhibition, as hypothesized. Contrary to hypothesis, effortful inhibition was inversely associated with alcohol-related problems, which resulted in a positive indirect association between effortful control and alcohol problems. Reactivity was positively associated with drinking automaticity via drinking habits and positively associated with effortful inhibition and alcohol problems. Results indicate effortful control and reactivity exhibit unique associations with health and drinking habits, automaticity, and effortful inhibition. Results suggest a somewhat paradoxical process whereby effortful control achieves its ends via decreased effort to engage in adaptive behaviors. Validity of using self-report and word association measures of automaticity was supported by the observed associations with predictors and outcomes.

"Same but different": Associations between multiple aspects of self-regulation, cognition, and academic abilities.

Self-regulation describes the ability to control both behaviors and internal states against a backdrop of conflicting or distracting situations, drives, or impulses. In the cognitive psychology tradition, individual differences in self-regulation are commonly measured with performance-based tests of executive functioning, whereas in the personality psychology tradition, individual differences in self-regulation are typically assessed with report-based measures of impulse control, sustained motivation, and perseverance. The goal of this project was (a) to comprehensively examine the structure of associations between multiple self-regulatory constructs stemming from the cognitive and personality psychology traditions; (b) to estimate how these constructs, individually and collectively, related to mathematics and reading ability beyond psychometric measures of processing speed and fluid intelligence; and (c) to estimate the extent to which genetic and environmental factors mediated the observed associations. Data were available for 1,019 child participants from the Texas Twin Project (M age = 10.79, range = 7.8-15.5). Results highlighted the differentiation among cognitive and personality aspects of self-regulation, both at observed and genetic levels. After accounting for processing speed and fluid intelligence, EF remained a significant predictor of reading and mathematics ability. Educationally relevant measures of personality-particularly an openness factor representing curiosity and intellectual self-concept-incrementally contributed to individual differences in reading ability. Collectively, measures of cognition, self-regulation, and other educationally relevant aspects of personality accounted for the entirety of genetic variance in mathematics and reading ability. The current findings point to the important independent role that each construct plays in academic settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining the Effectiveness of a Web-Based Intervention for Depressive Symptoms in Female Adolescents: Applying Social Cognitive Theory.

Depression is a serious mental health illness among adolescents especially girls. Web-based treatment can possibly become a solution for reducing mental health problems in adolescents. This study is one of the first trials aimed to evaluate the efficiency of web-based depression improvement program among female adolescents based on the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). Randomized Controlled Trial. A six-month randomized controlled trial based on the SCT was implemented in female schools in Hamadan City, west of Iran in 2018 on 128 female students with mild to moderate depressive symptoms (CES-D =10-45). They were randomly assigned to either intervention or control group (n= 64 in each group). Depression improvement program was implemented through the website via short videos, animations and Power-Point slides. Depression was evaluated using Center for Epidemiologic Depression Scale. A researcher-made questionnaire based on the sheerer and Perceived-Social-Support-Scale-Revised (PSSS-R) questionnaires were used to evaluate the SCT constructs. The data were analyzed using SPSS software. The intervention program resulted in the improvement of depression in 12 wk based on Intent-to-treat analyses. Nevertheless, these achievements seem to have decreased by 24 wk in intervention group. The intervention increased the mean scores of the constructs of social support and self-regulation from baseline to 12 wk in the intervention group (P<0.05). The intervention had no effect on outcome expectations and self-efficacy. There were no statistically significant associated between theory constructs changes and changes in depression (P>0.05). The web-based intervention improved depression in female students. Future training using strategies for the sustainable improvement of depression in female students are needed.

The p factor in children: Relationships with executive functions and effortful control

Lower levels of self-regulation have been implicated in multiple psychological disorders. Despite conceptual overlap (broadly reflecting self-regulatory functions), executive functions (EF) and effortful control (EC) are rarely jointly studied in relation to broadband psychopathology. The present study investigated associations of correlated factors (internalizing-externalizing) and bifactor psychopathology models with EF and EC in a large (N = 895) childhood community sample (Mage = 11.54, SDage = 2.25). Associations between both self-regulation constructs (EF and EC) with psychopathology were largely accounted for via a general psychopathology factor. However, EC evidenced stronger associations, questioning the utility of task-based EF measures to inform self-regulatory psychopathology.

Determinants of Stretching Exercise Behavior among Office Employees using Health Promotion Model with Added Constructs

OBJECTIVE: To determinant the influencing factors on Stretching Exercise (SE) among officeemployees working in Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences (SBUMS) in Iran through HealthPromotion Model (HPM) with added constructs.METHODOLOGY: Data were collected by a researcher-made and standard questionnaires based on HPMand added constructs of self-regulation, counter-conditioning, and stimulus control questionnaireregarding stretching exercise behavior among office employees working in comprehensive servicecenters affiliated to SBUMS. A multistage cluster sampling from May to Sep 2017 was done. Todeterminants the factors which effect on doing stretching exercise behavior; regression analysis wasdone through using SPSS 19 software.RESULTS: Totally 420 office employees with mean age of 37.1±8.03 years participated in this study.Perceived barriers to action (B =-0.106, P<0.001), could prevent the studied participants from engagingin SE. However, perceived self efficacy (B = 0.172, P < 0.001), commitment to a plan of action (B = 0.173,P=0.016), interpersonal influences (B = 0.099, P=0.003), and stimulus control (B = 0.193, P=0.007) weresignificant determinants for SE behavior.CONCLUSION: This study showed that the office employees who were more perceived self efficacy,commitment to a plan of action, interpersonal influences, stimulus control and less perceived barrierswere more likely to perform stretching exercise.

Effective Factors of the Healthy Nutritional Behavior Based on the Application of Social Cognitive Theory among 13-15-Year-Old Students

Background: There is a rapid spurt in non-communicable diseases because of some significant changes in nutrition patterns around the globe. Controlling the main risk factors, namely lack of physical activity and smoking, might decrease more than 50% of the deaths and disabilities caused by these factors. This study aimed to investigate the effective factors of healthy food behavior based on the application cognitive social theory to 13 to 15-year- old students. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on 330 students aged 13–15 years, in Zarrin- Dasht County, Fars Province, south of Iran who were randomly selected from public schools assigned to the study in 2016. The data gathering tools were demographic questionnaire, a researcher-made questionnaire of social cognitive theory (outcome expectations, outcome values, self-efficacy, social support, and self-regulation), and another questionnaire on nutritional behavior. Questionnaires were completed by students. For analyzing data, the SPSS-22 software, multiple regression, and correlation tests were used. Results: 330 students aged 13–15 years with seventh, eighth and ninth educational grade participated in this study. Among different constructs of social cognitive theory, outcome expectations (P=0.001), social support (P=0.005), and self-regulation (P=0.001), have made significant contribution to the explanation of the variance of appropriate nutritional behavior among the students. In total, these variables account for approximately 63% of the variance of nutritional behaviors. Conclusion According to the results of this study outcome expectations, social support, and self-regulation might be effective in designing educational interventions to achieve healthy food behavior in students.

Self-Regulation in Early and Middle Childhood as a Precursor to Social Adjustment Among Low-Income, Ethnic Minority Children.

Although existing research has shed much light on the development of ethnic minority children, many studies focus on maladjustment, such as behavioral problems, without also speaking to positive experiences in children's lives, such as friendship. An aspect of development that predicts both positive and negative outcomes for children is self-regulation. The present study investigates precursors and sequelae of self-regulation in middle childhood among low-income, ethnic minority children. The four self-regulatory constructs examined in the current study include low-level executive function (EF; e.g., working memory), high-level EF (e.g., planning), effortful control (EC; e.g., delay of gratification), and impulsivity (e.g., does not think before doing). EC in preschool was related to high-level EF and impulsivity in elementary school. High-level EF explained positive and negative aspects of social development during middle childhood. Additionally, self-regulation during elementary school played a mediating role between EC in preschool and social development in middle childhood.