Consideration Of Cosmetic Surgery Research Articles

The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder and the acceptance of cosmetic surgery in a nonclinical sample of Hungarian adults

Background: Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a common, often undiagnosed, serious condition. The relationship between body dysmorphic disorder and cosmetic surgery is rather complex, as many patients with body dysmorphic disorder search for cosmetic solutions for the imagined defect in appearance. Aims: To assess the prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder and its relationship to the acceptance and use of cosmetic services and body-related variables among Hungarian adults. Methods: Body weight and height, body satisfaction, health state, aesthetic intervention-related experiences, and plans were assessed by a self-report online questionnaire that included the Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire and the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale. Six hundred three subjects (94% women, n = 567, 6% men, n = 36, age M = 40.16 years, SD = 13.32 years) joined the research on a social media platform. Results: The prevalence of BDD is 8.1% (n = 49), 8.1% (n = 46) in women, and 8.3% (n = 3) in men. The BDD-positive group had higher BMI (U = 9641.5, p = 0.028), more plastic surgeries (χ2(1) = 19.682 , p = 0.012), and more acceptance of cosmetic surgery (U = 6664, p < 0.001). The risk of BDD is significantly higher in those who have a lower education (OR = 0.424, p = 0.031), accept cosmetic surgery (OR = 1.031, p = 0.025), plan plastic surgery (OR = 0.351, p = 0.027) and are more dissatisfied with their body (OR = 0.397, p < 0.001). Consideration of cosmetic surgery (U = 7433, p = 0.006) and planning for future plastic surgeries χ2(1) = 7.943, p = 0.019) are more frequent in females. Sixty-six women (11.6%) have already had some intervention, 26.4% plan, and 10.4% probably plan cosmetic surgery, while these data are 11.1%, 8.3% and 5.6% in males. These symptoms occur more frequently among women according to Body Dysmorphic Disorder Questionnaire: avoidance behavior (33.9% vs. 16.7%, χ2(1) = 4.539, p = 0.033), significant mental suffering caused by the perceived flaw(s) (29.8% vs. 13.9%, χ2(1) = 4.178, p = 0.041). The Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale total score has a significant positive relationship with BDD caseness (β = 0.100, p = 0.011) and the number of blepharoplasties (β = 0.111, p = 0.005) and significant negative relationship with the planning of cosmetic surgery (β = –0.491, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder is high in this non-clinical, unselected Hungarian sample. The risk for body dysmorphic disorder is higher in those interested in cosmetic services; screening for this body image disorder is necessary.

Self-awareness and Social Influences as Predictors of Body Dissatisfaction and Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery for Social Reasons Among Men

BackgroundBody dissatisfaction and the use of surgery for purely aesthetic reasons among men is steadily increasing. Nevertheless, compared to women, few studies have focused on specific sociocultural and individual factors predicting men’s body dissatisfaction and interest in cosmetic surgery procedures. The present study investigated the role of media, significant others, public and private self-awareness in predicting men’s body dissatisfaction and acceptance of cosmetic surgery for social reasons.MethodsParticipants were 203 men (mean-age 24 years), who completed a questionnaire containing the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-4R, the Situational Self-Awareness Scale, the Muscular internalization subscale, the Male Body Attitudes Scale, and the Social subscale of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale. A path analysis was performed.ResultsThe influence of significant others and public self-awareness predicted men’s body dissatisfaction directly and indirectly, via muscularity internalization, while media was only directly associated with body dissatisfaction. A significant link between private self-awareness and body dissatisfaction was found. Moreover, media was not associated with cosmetic surgery either directly or indirectly and public self-awareness showed only a significant association with internalization.ConclusionsThese findings provide information about the role that self-awareness and sociocultural factor play on body dissatisfaction and acceptance of surgery for social reasons among men. The study highlighted the importance of designing preventive programs aimed at enhancing men’s ability to resist various forms of pressure regarding body image and its management. Moreover, the advantages of focusing one’s attention on internal states and feelings can limit body dissatisfaction and can discourage consideration of cosmetic surgery for social benefits.Level of Evidence VThis journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

Changing to Impress: Testing a Mediation Model from Instagram Self-presentation to Cosmetic Surgery

BackgroundThis study examined the relationship between false self-presentation on Instagram and consideration of cosmetic surgery through the mediating role of body image control in photos (BICP), photo manipulation, and body shame. We predicted that false self-presentation on Instagram was indirectly associated with cosmetic surgery intentions through the aforementioned constructs.MethodsA total of 504 young Italian adults (28.2% males, 18–30 years) completed an online survey. They completed a questionnaire containing the Self-presentation on Instagram Questionnaire, the Body Image Control in Photos Questionnaire—revised, the Photo Manipulation Scale, the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, and the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale. The pattern of associations between the constructs was analyzed via path analysis.ResultsThe results show that false self-presentation on Instagram was associated with photo manipulation, both directly and indirectly, through BICP. Furthermore, photo manipulation was linked to body shame, but neither of them was associated with cosmetic surgery intentions. Finally, false self-presentation on Instagram was associated with the consideration of cosmetic surgery only through the mediation of BICP.ConclusionFindings indicate that self-presentation styles might affect Instagram photo behaviors and individuals’ cosmetic surgery intentions, suggesting that surgeons should fully examine patients’ motivations before providing them with services. Furthermore, intervention programs encouraging users to present a more authentic version of themselves online might reduce the risk of self-objectification and reduce the consideration of procedures aimed at modifying one's body for purely aesthetic reasons.Level of Evidence VThis journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

A Brief Online Cognitive Dissonance-Based Intervention to Reduce Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery and Improve Body Image Among Chinese Women

Across many cultures, women are evaluated based on their appearance, with narrow societal beauty ideals as the standard against which they are judged and, eventually, judge themselves. Women who internalize the beauty ideal are more likely to consider cosmetic surgery. Dissonance-based interventions targeting thin-ideal internalization are effective at preventing eating disorders and associated risk factors. In this study, we evaluated an online dissonance-based intervention targeting beauty-ideal internalization to reduce favorable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery among Chinese women. Chinese women who were dissatisfied with their appearance and who were considering cosmetic surgery were randomized to the intervention ( n = 127, Mage = 35.49) or to the educational brochure control condition ( n = 98, Mage = 32.97). Beauty-ideal internalization, favorable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery, facial appearance concerns, body satisfaction, and body appreciation were assessed at pretest, posttest, and 4-week follow-up. Intention-to-treat analyses showed that the intervention reduced beauty-ideal internalization and favorable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery at posttest, with small-to-medium effect sizes; however, effects were not sustained at follow-up. No effects were found for facial appearance concerns, body satisfaction, and body appreciation. This study provides preliminary evidence for the short-term efficacy of the dissonance-based intervention for reducing beauty-ideal internalization and favorable attitudes toward cosmetic surgery, and points to valuable directions for improvement. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843231183946 .

Does Social Media Engagement Influence Men’s Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery?

Men’s cosmetic surgery rates are increasing globally. Existing literature suggests that social media engagement encourages women to undergo cosmetic surgery, yet the relationship between social media and cosmetic surgery for men remains underexamined. The aim of this study was therefore to explore if social media engagement impacted men’s interest in undergoing cosmetic surgery. Using an adapted version of the Passive and Active Use Measure to assess social media engagement, the relationship between social media engagement and cosmetic surgery consideration was explored. Among 311 American adult men (Mage = 37.7), passive social media engagement (e.g., viewing photos, browsing profiles) was found to have a small positive relationship with consideration of cosmetic surgery (p < .05, 95% CI [0.12, 0.49]). Conversely, Active Non-social media engagement (e.g., posting videos, tagging) and Active Social media engagement (e.g., posting statuses, commenting) did not predict cosmetic surgery consideration. These results demonstrate that the ways in which men use social media (rather than whether or not they use social media in general) determines their interest in cosmetic surgery. While social media engagement is a known correlate for appearance dissatisfaction in women, this study provides evidence that social media engagement is potentially also harmful to men’s body image. This preliminary research may contribute to informing best clinical practice for men experiencing body dissatisfaction. Namely, reducing passive social media use may alleviate men’s likelihood of pursing cosmetic surgery, in turn reducing their exposure to the physical and psychological risks associated with undergoing cosmetic surgery.

Mediating effects of self-concept clarity and self-objectification on the relationship between celebrity worship and the process of considering cosmetic surgery among Chinese undergraduates

BackgroundSeveral studies have examined the relationship between celebrity worship and cosmetic surgery; however, few have discussed the mediating role of self-concept. To fill this research gap, the present study aims to examine the mediating roles of self-concept clarity and self-objectification in the association between celebrity worship and cosmetic surgery.MethodsA sample of 1,089 Chinese undergraduates (Mage = 20.32; SDage = 2.60) completed measures of celebrity worship, actively considering cosmetic surgery, self-concept clarity, and self-objectification. Mediating effect analysis was used to test the hypothesis.ResultsThe results showed that celebrity worship, cosmetic surgery consideration, and self-objectification were positively correlated, whereas self-concept clarity was negatively correlated with all three variables. Mediation analysis revealed that celebrity worship predicted consideration of cosmetic surgery not only directly but also through three indirect paths through the mediating role of (1) self-concept clarity, (2) self-objectification, and (3) the chain mediating role of self-concept clarity and self-objectification.ConclusionsThese findings broaden our understanding of the psychological processes that underlie the association between celebrity worship and considering cosmetic surgery and afford practical guidance on reducing the risks associated with cosmetic surgery.

Spanish Translation, Transcultural Adaptation, Validation and Clinical Applicability of Female Genital-Self Image Scale (FGSIS).

BackgroundAs female genital cosmetic surgeries have significantly increased, appropriate tools to evaluate self-esteem about women's own genitalia are necessary.Aimto translate, culturally adapt to Spanish women and to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSIS).MethodsFGSIS was forward and backward translated, culturally adapted into Spanish and its content evaluated through Delphi consensus. One item from the original scale was discarded after expert panel evaluation, developing the final Spanish scale (FGSIS-S) consisting of 6 items. Its psychometric properties were evaluated among 202 women attending gynecological consults through an online survey. The survey included socio-demographic data and FGSIS-S.Main Outcome MeasureSocio-demographic items, psychometric characteristics of the FGSIS-S (construct evaluation, internal consistency and test-retest reliability) were assessed.ResultsFGSIS-S proved to relate appropriately with the proposed construct (sum-content validity index 0.9, and significant inverse correlation with women concerned about their genital appearance or considering cosmetic surgery) with a 1-factor solution on exploratory factor analysis. The test proved good internal consistency (McDonald's omega 0.86) and test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation 0.86, P < .001). In 41.1% of cases, women referred concern about their genital's self-image and in 12.4% had considered undergoing cosmetic surgery.Clinical TranslationThe validated version of FGSIS-S can help both professionals and patients, and its implementation can be easily made in gynecological consults.Strengths and LimitationsThe main limitation is a self-selection bias in women attending gynecological consults, who may be more worried about their gynecological/sexual health. The sample is also a relatively homogeneous Caucasian population, with medium-high educational level, coming from gynecological consults. Strengths include the large sample size and the demographic survey that permitted evaluating the performance of FGSIS-S in the context of concern about genitals or consideration of cosmetic surgery.ConclusionFGSIS-S is an adequate scale to measure women's genital image self-perception in Spanish-speaking population of Spain.Bartolomé A, Villalaín C, Bermejo R, et al. Spanish Translation, Transcultural Adaptation, Validation and Clinical Applicability of Female Genital-Self Image Scale (FGSIS). Sex Med 2022;10:100558.

Does #beauty have a dark side? Testing mediating pathways between engagement with beauty content on social media and cosmetic surgery consideration

Beauty content on social media has grown exponentially, however research has yet to investigate its association with appearance concerns. This study drew on components of the tripartite influence model to test the associations between young women’s engagement with beauty content on social media and cosmetic surgery consideration. A sample of 399 undergraduate women aged 17–25years (Mage = 19.36) completed measures of beauty social media engagement, upward appearance comparison, general attractiveness internalization, dysmorphic appearance concerns, and consideration of cosmetic surgery. Path analysis was used to test direct and indirect associations. In line with the tripartite influence model, results supported a serial mediation model that comprised significant paths from beauty social media engagement through in turn, upward appearance comparison, general attractiveness internalization, and dysmorphic appearance concerns, to cosmetic surgery consideration. However, neither general attractiveness internalization nor dysmorphic appearance concerns mediated the link between beauty social media engagement and consideration of cosmetic surgery. Findings provide new insights into the links between engagement with the growing beauty social media trend and cosmetic surgery consideration.

Filters and fillers: Belgian adolescents’ filter use on social media and the acceptance of cosmetic surgery

ABSTRACT This study examined whether adolescents’ use of (a) body and (b) face filters was related to acceptance of cosmetic surgery (ACS) (i.e. intrapersonal and social acceptance, and intention). Attention was paid to possible differences according to adolescents’ (1) sex, (2) self-esteem, and (3) pubertal timing. A cross-sectional online survey among 333 Flemish adolescents (Mage = 16.06, SD = 1.45) with 71.2% girls was used to test the hypothesized model via structural equation modeling. The use of face filters was positively linked to social motivations of ACS and consideration of cosmetic surgery. Body filter use was only linked to social motivations of ACS. Only girls showed a link between body filter use and social ACS. The findings underline the role of filter use in adolescents’ ACS.

Women’s exposure to sexualized TV, self-objectification, and consideration of cosmetic surgery: The role of age.

Women’s exposure to sexualized TV, self-objectification, and consideration of cosmetic surgery: The role of age.

Supplemental Material for Women’s Exposure to Sexualized TV, Self-Objectification, and Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery: The Role of Age

Supplemental Material for Women’s Exposure to Sexualized TV, Self-Objectification, and Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery: The Role of Age

Influence of objectification belief and consumerism culture on Chinese women’s views of cosmetic surgery

The overwhelming objectification environments and the burgeoning of consumerism have encouraged people to value their physical appearance. Previous research has examined the causes of self-objectification and perceptions of cosmetic surgery. However, few have examined the effect of both objectification and consumerist culture on Chinese women’s views of cosmetic surgery. The present study examined the mechanisms underlying the relationship between internalized ideals of beauty and body surveillance as well as perceptions of cosmetic surgery among Chinese women, from the dual perspective of the objectification theory and the consumer culture impact model. Specifically, we proposed that the internalization of beauty ideals increases Chinese women’s body surveillance and cosmetic surgery consideration through beliefs of body as currency and women as sex objects. Results showed that women as sex objects belief mediated the relationship between internalization of beauty ideals and consideration of cosmetic surgery. Moreover, both beauty as currency belief and body surveillance mediated the relationship between internalization of beauty ideals and consideration of cosmetic surgery. The present study provides insight into how objectification environment interplays with materialism values to affect women’s self-objectification and cosmetic surgery consideration, which extends the objectification studies by taking consumer culture impact model and Chinese sociocultural factors into account.

Selfie Editing and Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery Among Young Chinese Women: The Role of Self-Objectification and Facial Dissatisfaction

Research reveals significant positive associations between selfie editing and consideration of cosmetic surgery, yet little is known about why this relationship exists. To address this question, the present study investigated the association between selfie editing and consideration of cosmetic surgery among young Chinese women and the mediating effects of self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction. A sample of 589 Chinese undergraduate women completed measures of selfie editing, self-objectification, facial dissatisfaction, and consideration of cosmetic surgery. Results showed that selfie editing was significantly positively correlated with consideration of cosmetic surgery. Self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction mediated this association along two mediating paths: the separate mediating effects of self-objectification and the serial mediating effects of self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction. Findings from the current study suggest that the use of photo editing applications is a risk factor for young women’s body image concerns and consideration of cosmetic surgery, which supports encouraging women to reduce the use of photo editing applications and indicates insights into possible prevention and intervention programs intended to reduce consideration of cosmetic surgery among women.

A Culturally Modified Application of Objectification Theory to Asian and Asian-American Women

In the current study we sought to find support for a culturally modified application of objectification theory to Asian and Asian American women. The positive association between socialization experiences (i.e., racial teasing and appearance-focused social pressure) and the outcome variable (i.e., consideration of cosmetic surgery) was hypothesized to be mediated by self-objectification processes (i.e., internalization of beauty standards, body surveillance, and lower body esteem). Results using path analysis showed that culturally dominant (United States) and culturally specific (Asian) internalization of beauty standards, culturally dominant (United States) and culturally specific (Asian) body surveillance, and lower body esteem were significant mediators between socialization experiences and consideration of cosmetic surgery. A multiple-group analysis demonstrated equivalence of the model for Asian international and Asian American female students, showing that both dominant and culturally specific beauty standards may contribute to self-objectification processes for this population.

Digital Appearance Manipulation Increases Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Background: Social media has gained significant popularity over the last decade. We now have the opportunity to digitally enhance our physical appearance using a variety of applications in the palm of our hands. One app, in particular, Facetune2, allows one to smooth skin, alter the size and shape of our nose, and even enhance our jaw line. Objectives: (1) To assess whether using a digital appearance manipulation (DAM) application directly causes increased acceptance of cosmetic surgery and (2) to measure the impact photograph editing has on an individual's self-esteem, self-rated attractiveness, and self-rated personality traits. Design Type: Prospective cohort study. Methods: A total of 20 subjects were recruited to participate in this study between July 25 and September 24, 2019, using University e-mail list invitations. Subjects first completed a basic intake questionnaire that included demographic information as well as baseline acceptance of cosmetic surgery, Rosenberg self-esteem, and self-perception scores. Subjects then had two sets of headshots taken (neutral and smile) and provided an introduction on the use of the Facetune2 app. Subjects received a digital copy of their photographs and were asked to download the free mobile app. After 1 week of appearance manipulation, subjects submitted their best edited photographs and completed the same three questionnaires. Wilcoxon signed rank test analysis was then used to assess for changes before and after DAM. Results: Overall, study participants indicated increased consideration of cosmetic surgery on the acceptance of cosmetic surgery scale after DAM (+3.45, p = 0.04). When divided by gender, females further signified increased consideration of cosmetic surgery to keep looking young (+1.4, p = 0.04). Males indicated increased social motivation for cosmetic surgery after DAM (+1.5, p = 0.04). Both males (+1.0, p = 0.04) and females (+0.8, p = 0.03) indicated that they "could end up having some kind of cosmetic surgery" in the future. Comparison of the personality perception and Rosenberg self-esteem scores for all study participants before and after DAM showed no significant changes. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that DAM can directly lead to increased consideration of cosmetic surgery for both males and females without affecting self-esteem.

Association Between the Use of Social Media and Photograph Editing Applications, Self-esteem, and Cosmetic Surgery Acceptance.

Social media platforms and photograph (photo) editing applications are increasingly popular sources of inspiration for individuals interested in cosmetic surgery. However, the specific associations between social media and photo editing application use and perceptions of cosmetic surgery remain unknown. To assess whether self-esteem and the use of social media and photo editing applications are associated with cosmetic surgery attitudes. A population-based survey study was conducted from July 1 to September 19, 2018. The web-based survey was administered through online platforms to 252 participants. Each participant's self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (scores range from 0-30; higher scores indicate higher self-esteem) and the Contingencies of Self-worth Scale (scores range from 1-7; higher scores indicate higher self-worth). Cosmetic surgery attitude was measured using the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (scores range from 1-7; higher scores indicate higher acceptance of cosmetic surgery). Unpaired, 2-tailed t tests were used to assess the significance of self-esteem and cosmetic surgery attitude score differences among users of various social media and photo editing applications. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the association between social media investment and cosmetic surgery attitudes. Of the 252 participants, 184 (73.0%) were women, 134 (53.2%) reported themselves to be white, and the mean age was 24.7 (range, 18-55) years. Scores on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale from users and nonusers across applications were compared, with lower self-esteem scores noted in participants who reported using YouTube (difference in scores, -1.56; 95% CI, -3.01 to -0.10), WhatsApp (difference in scores, -1.47; 95% CI, -2.78 to -0.17), VSCO (difference in scores, -3.20; 95% CI, -4.98 to -1.42), and Photoshop (difference in scores, -2.92; 95% CI, -5.65 to -0.19). Comparison of self-esteem scores for participants who reported using other social media and photo editing applications yielded no significant differences. Social media investment had a positive association with consideration of cosmetic surgery (R, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.04-0.66). A higher overall score on the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale was noted in users of Tinder (difference in means, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.34-1.23), Snapchat (difference in means, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.07 to 0.71), and/or Snapchat photo filters (difference in means, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.16-0.72). Increased consideration of cosmetic surgery but not overall acceptance of surgery was noted in users of VSCO (difference in means, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.32-1.35) and Instagram photo filters (difference in means, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.01-0.76) compared with nonusers. This study's findings suggest that the use of certain social media and photo editing applications may be associated with increased acceptance of cosmetic surgery. These findings can help guide future patient-physician discussions regarding cosmetic surgery perceptions, which vary by social media or photo editing application use. NA.

Effects of social media use on desire for cosmetic surgery among young women

A large body of research has documented the influence of traditional media formats (e.g. television programs, adverts) on young women’s consideration of cosmetic surgery. However, less is known about how newer forms of media such as social networking sites impact desire for cosmetic surgery. The present study aimed to examine whether exposure to images depicting facial cosmetic enhancements increases the desire for cosmetic surgery among young women. One-hundred and eighteen women, aged 18–29 years, indicated their social media use. This was followed by a task in which they viewed either images of facial cosmetic enhancements (N = 59) or images of travel (N = 59). Participants then indicated their satisfaction with their appearance, their mood and desire to undergo cosmetic enhancement. The results showed that viewing images of females who have undergone cosmetic enhancements affected young women’s desire for cosmetic surgery, especially if they spent a significant amount of time on social media, followed many accounts, and were less satisfied with their appearance. These findings have implications for parents, clinicians, and policy makers for understanding how internet habits, particularly the use of social media, influence the desire for cosmetic surgery, including the psychosocial motivations underlying those intentions.

Why are men interested in cosmetic surgery procedures? Examining the role of different forms of peer influence, social comparison, internalization, and body dissatisfaction

The present research examined the roles of different forms of peer influence, internalization, social comparison, and body dissatisfaction in men’s interest in cosmetic surgery. Participants were 204 Italian men (Mage = 34.02, SD = 11.21). Regression analyses showed that appearance conversations with friends and peer attribution were associated with consideration of cosmetic surgery for social reasons, while teasing on muscularity (but not teasing on general body and shape) was linked to interest in cosmetic surgery for intrapersonal motives. Social comparison was significantly and positively associated with men’s interest in cosmetic surgery, while internalization was not. Dissatisfaction with body fat was linked to men’s consideration of cosmetic surgery for social motivations, while muscularity and height dissatisfaction did not emerge as significant correlates of cosmetic surgery attitudes. These findings highlight the importance of psychosocial factors, such as peer influence, body fat dissatisfaction, and social comparison in men’s interest in cosmetic procedures.

Consideration of Cosmetic Surgery As Part of Women's Benefit-Provisioning Mate Retention Strategy.

Individuals perform mate retention behaviors to minimize the risk of partner infidelity and relationship dissolution. The current study investigates whether consideration of cosmetic surgery can be conceptualized as part of a broader strategy of mate retention for women, but not men. We hypothesized that women’s consideration of cosmetic surgery would be positively associated with performance frequencies of Benefit-Provisioning and Cost-Inflicting mate retention behaviors. We recruited 203 individuals (54% women) in committed heterosexual relationships from Tehran, Iran. Results indicate a positive association between consideration of cosmetic surgery and Benefit-Provisioning mate retention behaviors for women, but not men. There was no association between consideration of cosmetic surgery and Cost-Inflicting mate retention behaviors. Women therefore may consider cosmetic surgery to improve their physical attractiveness as part of a Benefit-Provisioning strategy to retain a long-term mate. We discuss limitations of the study and highlight future directions for research from an evolutionary perspective.

Body Image, Objectification, and Attitudes Toward Cosmetic Surgery

Objectification theory has been used to explain how women's experiences of sexual objectification results in self‐objectification, self‐surveillance, and body shame, with emerging research linking these factors with positive attitudes toward cosmetic surgery. The present study aimed to further examine the utility of the objectification model in predicting women's interest in cosmetic surgery. Participants were 233 Australian female undergraduate students who completed an online questionnaire. The results from two multiple regression analyses supported the hypotheses that sexual objectification, self‐objectification, self‐surveillance, and body shame predicted an increased acceptance as well as consideration of cosmetic surgery. The results suggest that objectification theory is a useful framework in explaining Australian women's desire for cosmetic surgery, highlighting the need for further investigation into positive body image.