Conserving Animal Genetic Resources Research Articles

State of conservation of animal genetic resources in Slovakia

To effectively conserve animal genetic resources, countries need to periodically review their conservation efforts and reflect on actual problems and challenges. This study provides a review of animal genetic resources conservation activities, as well as the related existing legislative measures, strategies and funding in Slovakia. We present the development of endangered and supported breeds, discuss the impact of subsidies and the importance of awareness raising, and provide a SWOT analysis of the current animal genetic resources conservation framework in the country. In Slovakia, conservation is primarily based on animal breeding in natural conditions (in situ) without any limitations to breed improvement, and cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is in its initial phase. Most of the funding for conservation measures is provided by the Rural Development Programme. In general, the animal genetic resources system in Slovakia is open in terms of including new breeds eligible for support and this paper shows that the provided subsidies helped to stabilize most of the supported populations. Promoting the presence, characteristics and advantages of local breeds in times of intensive import of exotic breeds into the country is crucial to motivate breeders to prefer local livestock breeds. While the future challenge for the government is to improve conservation and facilitate related activities, research should address not only diversity, pedigree studies and cryoconservation, but also focus on the characterization of animal genetic resources for food security and climate change.

Gene Banks as Reservoirs to Detect Recent Selection: The Example of the Asturiana de los Valles Bovine Breed.

Gene banks, framed within the efforts for conserving animal genetic resources to ensure the adaptability of livestock production systems to population growth, income, and climate change challenges, have emerged as invaluable resources for biodiversity and scientific research. Allele frequency trajectories over the few last generations contain rich information about the selection history of populations, which cannot be obtained from classical selection scan approaches based on present time data only. Here we apply a new statistical approach taking advantage of genomic time series and a state of the art statistic (nSL) based on present time data to disentangle both old and recent signatures of selection in the Asturiana de los Valles cattle breed. This local Spanish originally multipurpose breed native to Asturias has been selected for beef production over the last few generations. With the use of SNP chip and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data, we detect candidate regions under selection reflecting the effort of breeders to produce economically valuable beef individuals, e.g., by improving carcass and meat traits with genes such as MSTN, FLRT2, CRABP2, ZNF215, RBPMS2, OAZ2, or ZNF609, while maintaining the ability to thrive under a semi-intensive production system, with the selection of immune (GIMAP7, GIMAP4, GIMAP8, and TICAM1) or olfactory receptor (OR2D2, OR2D3, OR10A4, and 0R6A2) genes. This kind of information will allow us to take advantage of the invaluable resources provided by gene bank collections from local less competitive breeds, enabling the livestock industry to exploit the different mechanisms fine-tuned by natural and human-driven selection on different populations to improve productivity.

English

The aim of this review paper was to investigate the use of biotechnology in the improvement of animal reproduction in different Asian Countries. Biotechnologies have contributed immensely to increasing livestock reproductively, particularly in developed countries, and can help to alleviate poverty and hunger, reduce the threats of diseases and ensure environmental sustainability in developing countries. A wide range of biotechnologies are available and have already been used in different Asian countries in the main animal science disciplines, that is animal reproduction, genetics and breeding; animal nutrition and production; and animal health. In animal reproduction, genetics and breeding, artificial insemination (AI) has perhaps been the most widely applied animal biotechnology, particularly in combination with cryopreservation, allowing significant genetic improvement for productivity as well as the global dissemination of selected male germ plasm. Complementary technologies such as semen sexing can improve the efficiency of AI. Embryo transfer provides the same opportunities for females, albeit on a much smaller scale and at a much greater price. Molecular DNA markers can also be used for genetic improvement through marker assisted selection (MAS) as well as to characterize and conserve animal genetic resources. Specific options that should assist Asian countries make informed decisions regarding the adoption of appropriate biotechnologies in the livestock sector in the future. Key words: Animal biotechnology, Asian countries, Reproduction.

Genetic Selection and Conservation of Genetic Diversity*

For 100s of years, livestock producers have employed various types of selection to alter livestock populations. Current selection strategies are little different, except our technologies for selection have become more powerful. Genetic resources at the breed level have been in and out of favour over time. These resources are the raw materials used to manipulate populations, and therefore, they are critical to the past and future success of the livestock sector. With increasing ability to rapidly change genetic composition of livestock populations, the conservation of these genetic resources becomes more critical. Globally, awareness of the need to steward genetic resources has increased. A growing number of countries have embarked on large scale conservation efforts by using in situ, ex situ (gene banking), or both approaches. Gene banking efforts have substantially increased and data suggest that gene banks are successfully capturing genetic diversity for research or industry use. It is also noteworthy that both industry and the research community are utilizing gene bank holdings. As pressures grow to meet consumer demands and potential changes in production systems, the linkage between selection goals and genetic conservation will increase as a mechanism to facilitate continued livestock sector development.

Combining US and Brazilian Microsatellite Data for a Meta-Analysis of Sheep (Ovis aries) Breed Diversity: Facilitating the FAO Global Plan of Action for Conserving Animal Genetic Resources

Microsatellites are commonly used to understand genetic diversity among livestock populations. Nevertheless, most studies have involved the processing of samples in one laboratory or with common standards across laboratories. Our objective was to identify an approach to facilitate the merger of microsatellite data for cross-country comparison of genetic resources when samples were not evaluated in a single laboratory. Eleven microsatellites were included in the analysis of 13 US and 9 Brazilian sheep breeds (N = 706). A Bayesian approach was selected and evaluated with and without a shared set of samples analyzed by each country. All markers had a posterior probability of greater than 0.5, which was higher than predicted as reasonable by the software used. Sensitivity analysis indicated no difference between results with or without shared samples. Cluster analysis showed breeds to be partitioned by functional groups of hair, meat, or wool types (K = 7 and 12 of STRUCTURE). Cross-country comparison of hair breeds indicated substantial genetic distances and within breed variability. The selected approach can facilitate the merger and analysis of microsatellite data for cross-country comparison and extend the utility of previously collected molecular markers. In addition, the result of this type of analysis can be used in new and existing conservation programs.

Potential for Somatic Nuclear Transfer Technology in Domestic Chickens

The development of mammalian somatic nuclear transfer techniques by Wilmut et al. in 1997 provided a new option for conserving animal genetic resources; however, this technique cannot be applied directly to avian species due to the anatomical and physiological differences between avian and mammalian embryos. A basic strategy for producing nuclear transferred avian offspring with somatic nuclear transferred primordial germ cells (snt-PGCs) was described in 2002. Under this scenario, somatic nuclear offspring could be produced through germline chimeras by transferring snt-PGCs into the bloodstream of early chicken embryos. In the present study, a series of experiments have been carried out to produce somatic nuclear transferred chickens.

A review of the role of protected areas in conserving global domestic animal diversity

A content analysis of 167 country reports submitted for the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was conducted to determine the extent to which protected areas are recognized as means of conserving domestic animal diversity. For countries in which protected areas were reported to help conserve the diversity of domesticated animals, additional details were sought from a review of related literature. Protected areas were seldom discussed in country reports and were most often mentioned as means to protect biodiversity in general, wild relatives of domesticated animals or wild game species. The most frequently mentioned way in which protected areas conserve domestic animal diversity is through initiatives that utilize indigenous breeds of livestock in nature conservation programmes. By offering farmers financial incentives for these ecological services, protected areas help offset potential economic disadvantages of raising indigenous breeds that may be less productive in industrial environments. Additional incentives to raise indigenous breeds are supported by protected areas such as niche marketing of organic food and fibre, establishing “seed herd” programmes and tourism promotion. Many opportunities exist for protected area managers and authorities responsible for conserving animal genetic resources for food and agriculture to fulfil mutually compatible objectives.

Reproductive Biotechnology and Gene Mapping: Tools for Conserving Rare Breeds of Livestock

Today's livestock diversity originated from the wild ancestor species and was subsequently shaped through the processes of mutation, genetic drift, and natural and human selection. Only a subset of the diversity present in the ancestral species survives in the domestic counterparts. A 2007 report released by UN Food and Agriculture Organization 'The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources', compiled from surveys conducted in 169 countries, found that nearly 70% of the world's remaining livestock breeds live in developing countries. The UN report was presented to more than 300 policy makers, scientists, breeders, and livestock keepers at the First International Technical Conference on Animal Genetic Resources, held in September 2007 in Interlaken, Switzerland. The conference aims were to adopt a global plan of action for conserving animal genetic resources as its main outcome. In this paper, the current and potential contributions of reproductive and molecular biotechnology are considered as tools of conserving rare breeds of livestock.

Dynamics of livestock production systems, drivers of change and prospects for animal genetic resources

SummaryThis overview analyses the key drivers of change in the global livestock sector and assesses how they are influencing current trends and future prospects in the world's diverse livestock production systems and market chains; and what are their consequent impacts on the management of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. The trends are occurring in both developing and industrialized countries, but the responses are different. In the developing world, the trends are affecting the ability of livestock to contribute to improving livelihoods and reducing poverty as well as the use of natural resources. In the industrialized world, the narrowing animal genetic resource base in industrial livestock production systems raises the need to maintain a broader range of animal genetic resources to be able to deal with future uncertainties, such as climate change and zoonotic diseases.This chapter discusses:• What are the global drivers of change for livestock systems? Economic development and globalization; changing market demands and the “livestock revolution”; environmental impacts including climate change; and science and technology trends.• How are the livestock production systems responding to the global drivers of change? Trends in the three main livestock production systems (industrial, crop-livestock and pastoral systems); the range and rate of changes occurring in different systems and how these affect animal genetic resources. The implications are that breeds cannot adapt in time to meet new circumstances. Hence new strategies and interventions are necessary to improve the management of animal genetic resources in situations where these genetic resources are most at risk.• What are the implications for animal genetic resources diversity and for future prospects of their use? - Industrial livestock production systems are expected to have a limited demand for biodiversity, while crop-livestock and pastoral systems will rely on biodiversity to produce genotypes of improved productivity under changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. All systems will rely on biodiversity, albeit to varying degrees, to cope with expected climate change.• What immediate steps are possible to improve animal genetic resources characterization, use and conservation? Appropriate institutional and policy frameworks are required to improve animal genetic resources management and these issues are being addressed at national and intergovernmental levels, in a process led by FAO to promote greater international collaboration on animal genetic resources. Based on an analysis of the current situation, the continuing loss of indigenous breeds and new developments in science and technology, there are several complementary actions that can begin to improve the management of animal genetic resources and maintain future options in an uncertain world.These are summarized here as:a. “Keep it on the hoof” - Encouraging the continuing sustainable use of traditional breeds and in situ conservation by providing market-driven incentives, public policy and This paper has benefited from inputs from several reviewers and other contributors, and we thank all for their thoughtful insights. We acknowledge the contributions of our colleagues at FAO, particularly Irene Hoffmann, Dafydd Pilling and Henning Steinfeld, and at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI): Ade Freeman, Mario Herrero, Olivier Hanotte, Steve Kemp, Sandy McClintock, Sara McClintock, Margaret MacDonald-Levy, Susan MacMillan, Grace Ndungu, An Notenbaert, Mwai Okeyo and Robin Reid. other support to enable livestock keepers to maintain genetic diversity in their livestock populations.b. “Move it or lose it” - Enabling access to and the safe movement of animal genetic resources within and between countries, regions and continents is a key factor in use, development and conservation of animal genetic resources globally.c. “Match breeds to environments” - Understanding the match between livestock populations, breeds and genes with the physical, biological and economic landscape. This “landscape livestock genomics” approach offers the means to predict the genotypes most appropriate to a given environment and, in the longer term, to understand the genetic basis of adaptation of the genotype to the environment.d. “Put some in the bank” — New technologies make ex situ, in vitro conservation of animal genetic resources feasible for critical situations and are a way to provide long-term insurance against future shocks.The multiple values, functions and consequences of livestock production systems and their rapid rate of change lead to divergent interests within and between countries. Conversely, the uncertainty about the implications of rapid, multifaceted global change for each livestock production system and the resulting future changes in the required genetic make-up of animal genetic resources make collective action to tackle conservation of animal genetic resources a long-term, global public good. Conserving animal genetic resources will not by itself solve these problems, but it is an important first step towards maintaining future options.Advances in science and the technology, in areas such as reproductive technology, genomics and spatial analysis, as well as progress in conceptualization of global public good production for the future management of animal genetic resources, should enable the international community to address both the short- and long-term challenges in innovative ways.

The role of gene banks in conserving farm animal genetic resources

The concept of conserving genetic resources was first introduced in 1928 by Vavilov, a Russian botanist who founded a plant genetic resources bank at the All-Union Institute of Plant Breeding, Leningrad (Simon, 1984). The issue was first raised by the animal production world in 1959 where a need to conserve animal genetic resources was expressed at a Joint Symposium on Germplasm Resources for plant and animal breeders in Chicago (Simon, 1984). The emergence of these ideas can be associated with the recognition of advances in animal breeding and reproductive technology leading to a small number of highly productive breeds taking a dominant position in the production process. Three main forms of conservation can be considered; (i) cyopreservation (gene bank); (ii) maintaining control populations (no selection); (iii) managing live animal populations. This overview will focus on the role that cyopreservation plays in conservation of animal genetic resources.

Integrating policies for the management of animal genetic resources with demand for livestock products and environmental sustainability

SummaryGlobal recognition of the need to conserve animal genetic resources comes at a time when the livestock sector faces significant challenges in meeting the growing demand for livestock products and the mitigation of negative environmental impacts caused by livestock. In developing regions it would seem that portions of the growing demand for livestock products are being met by increasing animal numbers instead of achieving increases in production efficiency. Concurrently, extensive grazing and mixed crop-livestock production systems are largely responsible for significant greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of environmental degradation. Under the growing demand and environmental sustainability rubric there exists a need to garner maximum benefit from diverse animal genetic resources. These three areas; growing demand on animal products, environmental issues, and conservation of AnGR form a nexus that national policies must simultaneously consider. To advance this integration, a policy framework is proposed that consists of incentives to produce, a secure resource base (e.g., genetic resources, land tenure) and access to markets for outputs and inputs including technology. Within this framework a set of potential policies are suggested that promote conservation, livestock sector growth and environmental sustainability.

Conserving animal genetic resources: making priority lists of British and Irish livestock breeds

AbstractPrioritisation of livestock breeds for conservation is agreed to depend upon the genetic distinctiveness of breeds, on census data and degree of endangerment, and on other factors relating to the present, future, or past function of the breeds in the livestock industry. How these factors can be combined to yield a prioritised list needs to be considered. An objective framework for prioritisation can be deduced if breeds are compared with each other by plotting genetic distinctiveness against distinctiveness of function. In this paper, the native British and Irish cattle breeds (n = 31 commercial, minority and rare breeds) have been prioritised in this way. Those with highest conservation priority are Chillingham, Gloucester, Guernsey, Jersey, Shetland and Irish Moiled. The 25 native British sheep breeds that are not on the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) Watchlist were also considered. The structure of the British sheep industry means that functional distinctiveness of breeds is not easily deduced. The only fully comparable characterisation data relate to wool fibre fineness class, so genetic distinctiveness was plotted against distinctiveness of this attribute. The non-rare breeds with highest conservation priority by this measure were Herdwick, Hampshire Down and Clun Forest.

Genetic improvement through reproductive technology

Abstract Reproductive technologies can increase the rate of genetic improvement, but they have the potential to cause an even greater increase in the rate of inbreeding. Determining how to gain genetic advantage from these technologies, while at the same time minimising their genetic disadvantages, has provided a major challenge for geneticists. The overall conclusions are that artificial insemination (AI), multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET), and in vitro embryo production (IVEP) can produce substantial increases in the rate of genetic improvement, with acceptable rates of inbreeding. In contrast, semen sexing, embryo sexing and embryo cloning can produce only limited increases in the rate of genetic improvement. However, embryo cloning can produce a once-only substantial boost in the average genetic merit of commercial stock, and can revolutionize breed structure. Reproductive technologies also have a major role to play in the important task of conserving animal genetic resources: in particular, there is an urgent need for methods of gamete cryopreservation that can be applied in isolated field conditions, for all of the major domesticated species.

The utilization and conservation of the world's animal genetic resources

The utilization and conservation of animal genetic resources constitute a complex set of problems. Simultaneous consideration must be given to the immediate need for genetic improvement, and to the conservation for future unforeseen needs — as well as for historic and scientific purposes. Because of rapid adoption of intensive selection methods in animal breeding and the introduction of artificial insemination, the genetic composition of the livestock populations of the industrialized countries is currently undergoing very rapid changes. In the Third World, livestock are largely bred and managed in traditional systems, although modern techniques are likely to be introduced at an increasing rate in the decades to come. An account is given of the rapid changes in the cattle breed composition in Europe and the Mediterranean basin. Of the total number of breeds which existed in 1970, 115 indigenous breeds are threatened by extinction and only 30 are holding their own. There has been a change towards Friesian cattle in the lowland areas and towards Simmental cattle in the moderately elevated areas of central and south-eastern Europe. Reasons are discussed why we need to conserve animal genetic resources, e.g. the cultural, historic and scientific interests on the one hand, and the more practical/economic ones on the other. Examples are given of breeds which, for historic reasons, should be conserved. However, to meet practical/economic needs in the future, ought to be the most important reason for conservation, and yet that type of conservation is often most difficult to justify and to arrange in practice. That changes in general economic conditions may completely reverse an earlier decline in numerical strength of animal strains is exemplified by the current use of Cornish chicken in many broiler strains, the present interest in former draught cattle of southern Europe to produce lean carcasses of beef and the use of the Finnish Landrace sheep to boost lambing rates through crossbreeding. Methods for assessing the decay of genetic variation are briefly discussed. Blood groups and other biochemical polymorphisms may be usefully employed as “marker genes” to measure the overall change in genetic variation; examples of such studies of north-west European cattle breeds are reviewed. Many different possibilities of conserving animal genetic material exist. Animal parks are gaining popularity and should be utilized more in the future. In species as cattle, where semen can be kept frozen and used for artificial insemination, storing frozen semen is a relatively cheap way of medium-term conservation. Work is now underway on several species for the storage of frozen embryos. The developing countries require special attention with regard to the utilization and conservation of animal genetic resources. The genetic variation of the animal populations in the developing countries appears to be very large. Local strains are often well adapted to stresses in the environment such as high solar radiation, periodic droughts and various diseases. Large-scale programmes for the evaluation of the animal strains are required. The occurence of cattle strains in West Africa, e.g. Baoulé and N'Dama, which show a high degree of tolerance towards trypanosomiasis is interesting. Their use in heavily tsetse-infested areas as an alternative to bush clearing and spraying with insecticides needs further investigation and/or promotion.