Conservation Of Natural Environments Research Articles

Chronotopes of exile and loss in Philip O'Sullivan Beare's Zoilomastix (c. 1626)☆

AbstractThis essay explores the relationship between an early modern exile and his native environment, as depicted in Philip O'Sullivan Beare's unfinished natural history Zoilomastix. Writing by turns in Latin, Spanish and Gaelic from the safety of the Habsburg court, O'Sullivan Beare marshalled Ciceronian rhetoric and Plinian wonder to argue for the conservation of interwoven natural and cultural environments. One of the earliest examples of national historiographies written from exile by erudite Irish figures, Zoilomastix has most often been read in terms of its political theology. Though understandable, such readings obscure O'Sullivan Beare's idiosyncratic treatments of self, state and nature. Additionally, such readings only partially consider the author's attempts to engage with the debates on ethnicity, natural law and resource capture which directed the actions of the English state. Adopting the dialogic framework of Mikhail Bakhtin's chronotope, this essay therefore explores the extent to which the genre of natural history was utilized to inform and influence contested narratives. It argues that O'Sullivan Beare's autobiographical account, and its relevance to the forthcoming ‘loss’ of his Gaelic world, has much to tell us in a time of ecological crisis.

Revealing Ecotourism Potential of Streams and Waterfalls: Identification of Influential Factors in a Case Study from Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam

Ecotourism is recognized as a fundamental aspect of sustainable tourism development. This study aimed to identify the factors influencing ecotourism in Thua Thien Hue province, Vietnam, specifically focusing on streams and waterfalls, using an ecotourism potential model. This model utilizes quantitative approaches, incorporating questionnaires and spatial information, including remote sensing data. The model is employed to determine the factors affecting ecotourism potential in the 31 locations of streams and waterfalls in Thua Thien Hue province. The model considers ecotourism potential as the dependent variable, while the independent variables are greenness using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), connectivity, accessibility, and infrastructure, e.g., restaurants and hotels. The results revealed that greenness has the most significant positive impact on ecotourism potential around streams and waterfalls in Thua Thien Hue province, followed by accessibility, restaurants, and hotels, while connectivity has a negative impact on ecotourism potential in these areas. This analysis underscores the importance of prioritizing the conservation of natural environments and ecosystems surrounding streams and waterfalls. Furthermore, this study utilizes geospatial methodologies to identify and enhance our understanding of the key factors influencing ecotourism.

Family and community resilience: a Photovoice study

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs), in combination with adverse community environments, can result in traumatic stress reactions, increasing a person’s risk for chronic physical and mental health conditions. Family resilience refers to the ability of families to withstand and rebound from adversity; it involves coping with disruptions as well as positive growth in the face of sudden or challenging life events, trauma, or adversities. This study aimed to identify factors contributing to family and community resilience from the perspective of families who self-identified as having a history of adversity and being resilient during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsThis study used Photovoice, a visual participatory research method which asks participants to take photographs to illustrate their responses to a research question. Participants consisted of a maximum variation sample of families who demonstrated family level resilience in the context of the pair of ACEs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Family members were asked to collect approximately five images or videos that illustrated the facilitators and barriers to well-being for their family in their community. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted using the SHOWeD framework to allow participants to share and elucidate the meaning of their photos. Using thematic analysis, two researchers then independently completed line-by-line coding of interview transcripts before collaborating to develop consensus regarding key themes and interpretations.ResultsNine families were enrolled in the study. We identified five main themes that enhanced family resilience: (1) social support networks; (2) factors fostering children's development; (3) access and connection to nature; (4) having a space of one’s own; and (5) access to social services and community resources.ConclusionsIn the context of additional stresses related to the COVID-19 pandemic, resilient behaviours and strategies for families were identified. The creation or development of networks of intra- and inter-community bonds; the promotion of accessible parenting, housing, and other social services; and the conservation and expansion of natural environments may support resilience and health.

Historical and legal basis for the formation of the habitat concept of biodiversity conservation

Biological diversity is one of the main elements which maintain the environmental stability and considered to be a basic factor of the optimal functioning of ecosystems. At the current stage of society’s development, as a result of intensive economic activity, environmental pollution, climate change and emergence of other negatively influential factors, biodiversity has appeared to be under the threat of a sharp reduction, which, certainly, requires urgent measures from the world community.
 Introduction of the habitat concept as an important direction for the conservation of biodiversity, emphasizing the role and interaction of people with natural ecosystems, consequently contributing to sustainable development and ensuring environmental sustainability, is one of such measures. This concept is based on the awareness of the importance of conservation of natural environments and balanced existence of all living organisms on the planet.
 The article provides a historical and legal analysis of the formation of the habitat concept of biodiversity conservation, which outlines the evolution of the legal approach to the conservation and management of natural resources. Resulting from the interaction of scientific, political and social factors, this process has caused significant changes in the regulation of relations between society and nature.
 The article also provides definitions of such concepts as «habitat» and «habitat concept», and analyzes concepts related to «habitat», such as «landscape», «ecosystem» and «biotope». The author’s definition of the concept «habitat» is proposed, promoting to scrutinize the areas of the earth or water surface that are determined by biological, climatic and geographical features and create conditions for the existence of plant and animal species, both individually and in general.
 Summarizing the research, the author emphasizes that the habitat concept is a key tool for the balanced development, which combines the needs of people with the conservation of biological diversity and natural resources.

The paradoxical need for human intervention in the conservation of natural environments in Venice lagoon

The Venice lagoon—the largest Mediterranean coastal lagoon—is characterized by the presence at its edges of 31 “valli da pesca”, types of artificial ecosystems that mime the ecological processes of a transitional aquatic ecosystem. Constituted by a series of regulated lakes bounded by artificial embankments, the valli da pesca were established centuries ago to maximize provisioning Ecosystem Services (ESs), such as fishing and hunting. As time passed, the valli da pesca underwent an intentional isolation process leading to private management. Nonetheless, the valli da pesca are still exchanging energy and matter with the “open’ lagoon and today represent an essential element within the context of lagoon conservation. This study aimed to analyze the possible effects of artificial management on both ESs supply and landscape arrangements by assessing 9 ESs (climate regulation, water purification, lifecycle support, aquaculture, waterfowl hunting, wild food, tourism, information for cognitive development, and birdwatching), along with eight landscape indicators. Obtained results suggested that the valli da pesca are today ruled under five different management strategies, according to the maximized ES. Management conditions influence the landscape pattern and achieve a series of “side effects” on the other ESs. The comparison between the managed and abandoned valli da pesca highlights the importance of anthropogenic interventions for conserving these ecosystems, as the abandoned valli da pesca show a loss of ecological gradients, landscape heterogeneity, and provisioning ESs. Nevertheless, the persistence of intrinsic geographical and morphological characteristics still prevails regardless of intentional landscape molding. The result is that the provisioning ESs capacity per unit area is higher in the abandoned valli da pesca than in the open lagoon, emphasizing the importance of these confined areas of the lagoon ecosystem. Considering the spatial distribution of multiple ESs, the provisioning ESs flow that does not occur in the abandoned valli da pesca seems to be replaced by the flow of cultural ESs. Thus, the ESs spatial pattern highlights a balancing effect between different ESs categories. The results are discussed considering the trade-offs generated by private land conservation, anthropogenic interventions, and their relevance for the ecosystem-based management of Venice lagoon.

OzCBI: the composite burn index adapted to assess fire severity and key fauna habitat features in Australian ecosystems

ABSTRACT Although fire management is essential to conserve ecosystems and protect communities in Australia, the best way to achieve these goals is controversial. Recent advances that use satellite imagery to map fire severity focus on canopy effects and provide limited ecological information. Fires and prescribed burns can also occur over weeks to months, limiting the relevance of a single post-fire image. We adapted the composite burn index, a field-truthing method commonly used in North America, to include parsimonious metrics that assess resprouting dynamics common among Australian eucalypts and the retention and recovery of key fauna habitat attributes. We used multitemporal satellite imagery to compile the greatest impacts within fire boundaries over several months and derive the maximum differenced normalised burn ratio (dNBR max). We used the dNBR max and a new field method, the OzCBI, to create distinct fire-severity models for three forested biogeographical regions in southwest Western Australia. Ecological outcomes were used to set thresholds between severity classes that were common to the three models. Balanced accuracies averaged above 0.7 across the models. This study demonstrates a practical method to incorporate ecological assessment into fire-severity maps. The approach informs efforts to achieve best-practice fire management that balances risk reduction and the conservation of natural environments.

The laboratory of subterranean biology “Enrico Pezzoli”: a new underground facility for zoological research.

Since the beginning of subterranean biological research, the development of underground laboratories has provided scientists with protected places to perform long-term studies and to collaborate with others across subjects. However, aided by advances in technology for research centres and universities and by concerns for the conservation of natural subterranean environments, mots of past subterranean laboratories went under the radar of the institutions that owned them. Here we describe a new underground facility that was built in Italy by the Regional Park of “Monte Barro” (Lecco, Lombardy) and dedicated to the memory of Enrico Pezzoli who was strongly active in the study of spring and cave biodiversity. The laboratory has been established by repurposing an ancient draining gallery of the Park; it has been conceived to study local fauna, especially that of local aquifers. Removable equipment has been set stretching along the gallery, from the beginning to deep sections, creating distinct sectors with different conditions allowing to rear, study and compare both troglophile and troglobiont species. In every sector of the laboratory independent blocks with different controlled conditions of light and biotic features can be easily placed and used to rear individuals of both invertebrates and amphibians. Experimental activity does not prevent the exploitation of the gallery by local fauna, with spiders, crustaceans and amphibians usually occurring. The first experiences performed in the new resource suggest that subterranean laboratories, if appropriately conceived, may represent sustainable facilities thanks to their low energetic requirements and their strong potential in integrating research and education.

The importance of pollination and dispersal syndromes for the conservation of Cerrado Rupestre fragments on ironstone outcrops immersed in an agricultural landscape

Studies on pollination and seed dispersal are essential for the conservation of plant diversity. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the pollination and dispersal syndromes of five fragments of the Cerrado Rupestre immersed in an agricultural landscape to answer the following questions: (i) What is the frequency of pollination and dispersal syndromes among species and individuals?; (ii) Which are the predominant pollination and seed dispersal syndromes in this environment?. A total of 66 species, belonging to 44 genera and 29 botanical families, were evaluated. Melittophily was the most common type of pollination syndrome, observed in 54.55% of the species, followed by phalenophily (9.09%), cantharophily, ornithophily, quiropterophilly and sphingophily (all 3.03%), and psychophilly (1.51%). Generalist pollination represented 22.73% of the records. Of the 1246 individuals identified, 59.23% were melitophilous, 25.20% generalists, 5.86% phalenophilous, 3.37% quiropterophilous, 2.49% cantharophilous, 2.25% ornithophilous, 1.44% sphingophilous and 0.16% psychophilous. Regarding dispersion syndromes, zoochory was the most common type of dispersion, observed in 68.18% of the species, followed by anemochory (28.79%) and autochory (3.03%). On the other hand, the frequency among individuals differed from the values found for frequency among species. Of the 1246 individuals identified, 55.38% were anemochoric, 43.10% zoochoric, and 1.52% autochoric. Our results demonstrate the predominance of biotic syndromes in the community, especially melittophily and zoochory, contributing to a better understanding of the functionality and availability of resources in the community, as well as indispensable information for the conservation, management, and restoration of natural environments.

TURISMO INDÍGENA: UNA ALTERNATIVA PARA LA CONSERVACIÓN DE LA RESERVA DE LA BIOSFERA DE MONTES AZULES, CHIAPAS, MÉXICO

Historically, indigenous communities in Latin America, have inhabited spaces that currently have great economic value due to their variety of natural resources. Under the discourse of sustainability, governments seek to preserve them under the figures of Protected Natural Areas, mainly the Biosphere Reserves. In that sense, indigenous populations have been inserted into tourism activity, under the discourse of sustainability because it coincides with their worldview of coexistence with nature. In some cases, tourism has participated as predation by external actors, but it also has become a new threat to the territory. This document aims to determine whether the strategy of incorporating the Lacandones, inhabitants of the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve into tourism, is convenient for the conservation of natural environments and the improvement of the living standards of local populations; to the extent that has been the continue to be a dominant global discourse around which the introduction of tourism in indigenous communities close to protected natural areas.

Mass Mortality of Foundation Species on Rocky Shores: Testing a Methodology for a Continental Monitoring Program

Global concern around substantial losses of biodiversity has led to the development of a number of monitoring programs. Networks were established to obtain appropriate data on the spatial and temporal variation of marine species on rocky shores. Recently, the Marine Biodiversity Observation Network Pole to Pole of the Americas (MBON P2P) program was established and is coordinating biodiversity surveys along coastal areas throughout the continent. The goal of this paper was to test the usefulness and adequacy of a methodology proposed for the MBON P2P program. Changes in benthic assemblage cover were studied on monitored sites in northern Patagonia before and after the 2019 austral summer. Long-term dynamics of mussel bed is described based on existing data. Results showed that assemblages before the 2019 austral summer were different from assemblages after it. Thus, a mussel mass mortality event could be detected with this methodology. It took less than a year for mussel cover to drop from 90 to almost 0%; even where substantial changes in mussel bed cover were not registered in the previous ~20 years at the study area. This simple methodology is an adequate tool for monitoring rocky intertidal habitats. Yearly monitoring is needed, as a minimum, to perceive this kind of process timely. Real-time detection offers the opportunity of properly understanding the causes that lead to the loss of key community components, such as these foundation species. Furthermore, it would provide early warning to decision-makers enhancing the chances of conservation of natural environments and their ecosystem services.

New, regenerative approaches to sustainability : Redefining ecosystem functions, environmental management, and heritage conservation

The international conference “Sustainable Management of Cultural Landscapes in the context of the European Green Deal”, held in Santo Stefano di Camastra (Sicily, Italy) on November 9-14, 2021. aimed to shed light on those environmental, social, economic, and cultural problems of interactions between humankind and its natural environment, which cannot be answered through one single discipline but only by applying a multidisciplinary system approach, built on applied Earth System Science intimately interwoven with social sciences, economics and heritage science. The structure of the Congress mirrored this concept since the overlapping areas of sessions encouraged interdisciplinary thinking and practical approach to the key issues of regional development such as ecosystem protection, green infrastructures, sustainable and multifunctional agriculture, circular economy, renewable energy, regeneration, and conservation of natural environments and conservation of cultural heritage.

Smart Initiatives for Land Resource Management: Perspectives and Practices from China

ABSTRACT Land resource management is critical for optimal land use and improved socioeconomic development. In China, land resource management has always faced a dilemma between the excessive demands of land exploitation and the conservation of natural resources and ecological environments. Despite the challenges, recent technological advancements have offered the promise for government officials to better manage land resources using digital and big data technologies. The Chinese government has embarked on smart initiatives for land resource management (SiLRM) by integrating digital technologies with land resource management. However, the field of land resource management lacks a comprehensive framework for incorporating these technologies. This paper first reviews the history and content of SiLRM in China and presents three case studies that demonstrate how SiLRM are currently implemented in China. It then develops a framework for how government officials should deploy advanced IT technologies. The proposed framework, as well as some policy recommendations, could shed light on the future development of an integrated spatial governance system in China, particularly against the backdrop of a recent national reform that integrates multiple planning systems. The proposed framework may also have implications for related practices in other regions and countries worldwide.

Factors That Explain the Utilization of the Nagoya Protocol Framework for Access and Benefit Sharing

One of the primary concerns of countries with high levels of biodiversity is the conservation of species and natural environments. This prioritization is based in part on a recognition of the importance of ecosystem services, understood as the various benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, which may be developed into goods and services that are transacted in markets. The Nagoya Protocol is an international agreement whose purpose is to provide a framework under which countries can support biodiversity conservation by regulating access to native genetic materials. Such materials may be of interest to companies, organizations, and institutions for commercial, non-commercial, or both purposes. Furthermore, genetic resources constitute important inputs in numerous industries, including those in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, botany and horticultural, agricultural, personal hygiene and cosmetics, and food and beverage sectors. The present study explores whether there is a relationship between biodiversity, the implementation of systems to protect natural areas and the quality of institutions, and the utilization of the Nagoya Protocol framework in individual countries. A Probit model was estimated to test these relationships, and a Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was conducted to identify whether the aforementioned factors explain the execution of access and benefit sharing (ABS) agreements, as measured through the lodging of Internationally Recognized Certificates of Compliance (IRCC) in the Access and Benefit-Sharing Clearing-House (ABSCH) of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The findings indicated that biodiversity conservation policies, specifically the designation of protected natural areas, are important factors that might motivate actors in Nagoya Protocol member countries to utilize the protocol system. The CCA also revealed that the quality of institution factors such as the protection of property rights, the efficiency of legal frameworks for dispute resolution, investor protection, and a low government regulation burden. also help to explain the utilization of ABS agreements.

Swat Based Soil Erosion Modeling of Nashe, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

In worldwide, soil erosion effect on the water storage structures is significant for proper management of water resource and its use. The effect of soil erosion, improper management system and lack of suitable soil conservation measures have played important role for food production, and global warming problem. For modeling of soil erosion in Nashe watershed a geographical information system (GIS) version-based SWAT has been used to evaluate sensitivities and prone soil erosion area. To predict spatial & temporal soil erosion distribution stream flow calibration and validation of the soil and water assessment tool were applied using the compatible version of SWATCUP against stream flow for Nashe watershed were taken to estimate model performance on monthly basis. Soil erosion involves all parameters are important for feasible conservation of natural, agricultural and built-up environments. To model the soil erosion the analysis was done on over land runoff, soil loss and sediment yield. The model performance(SWAT) has been evaluated by using statistical parameters of (R²) and (E_NS) 0.79&0.75 respectively for calibration and validation results 0.71 and 0.65 for R² and E_NS respectively, the results indicate that the best model to forecast hydrological process of the basin or catchment.

Análise integrada para conservação ambiental: estudo aplicado ao Parque Estadual de Paraúna - Goiás

O presente artigo pretende fazer uma revisão de referenciais teóricos que elucidam a temática da conservação dos ambientes naturais em contrapartida ao avanço da sociedade contemporânea progressista do século XXI. Para isto, a utilização de estudos correspondentes ao planejamento ambiental, geoconservação, geodiversidade e patrimônio geológico, além da simplificação do arcabouço legislativo relativos ao meio ambiente, darão suporte necessário à composição deste artigo. Como exemplo de recorte espacial a fim de compreender as efetivas políticas de ordenamento, gestão e preservação ambiental no território brasileiro e, em especial no Estado de Goiás, buscou-se contemplar à pesquisa um estudo territorial aplicado ao Parque Estadual de Paraúna, localizado no município de Paraúna. Foram diagnosticadas, a priori, ineficiências político-institucionais dos órgãos representativos na elaboração/execução de projetos que visam à conservação dos ambientes naturais conforme previsto na legislação ambiental brasileira. O baixo indicativo da terminologia voltada à geoconservação e patrimônio geológico na legislação, inexistência em plano de manejo, acesso rodoviário com alto índice de periculosidade e degradação do patrimônio público são as principais análises contempladas nesta pesquisa.
 Palavras-chave: Parque Estadual de Paraúna; geodiversidade; geoconservação; SNUC.

Plan de ecoturismo para la laguna de Solano (Guabizhún)

El desarrollo turístico de la laguna de Guabizhún y sus áreas de influencia se encuentra sustentado en el aprovechamiento sostenible de sus atractivos turísticos naturales y culturales, así como de los del entorno geográfico, mediante el diseño y la ejecución de programas para la gestión, la instalación de la planta turística adecuada y la infraestructura de apoyo al desarrollo del turismo de naturaleza, de acuerdo con los objetivos de sustentabilidad en sus dimensiones económica, ambiental y cultural del sitio y los conectores que forman las actividades turísticas y recreativas del área. Por ello, es importante destacar la participación de las comunidades en el desarrollo de la actividad turística, que pueden aportar como alternativa válida para mejorar las condiciones de vida local y ayudar indudablemente a la conservación de los ambientes naturales y, sobre todo, del patrimonio cultural de los pueblos, mediante una planificación y un control adecuados de los recursos, donde la actividad del ecoturismo puede llegar a constituir una fuente importante de ingresos.

Multifunctional Golf Facilities as a Resource of Important Ecosystem Services in a Changing Urban Environment: Nordic Case Studies

Multifunctional golf facilities are a resource of important ecosystem services in a changing urban environment. Several examples of multifunctional activities fulfilling environmental quality goals are available on Nordic golf courses. These examples should set the standard for many other peri‐urban golf courses. The handbook A Practical Guide to Assessing your Golf Course´s Multifunctional Potential (Jensen et al. 2015) is intended as a tool to visualize the multifunctional potential of golf facilities and to start the process of developing multifunctional values—for example, to contribute to the production or conservation of biological diversity, natural and cultural environments, and to the retention and expansion of ecosystem services in peri‐urban environments and the cultivated landscape. In this paper, we extract examples from Nordic multifunctional golf facilities and relate them to environmental quality goals.

Challenging the principles of ecotourism: insights from entrepreneurs on environmental and economic sustainability in Langkawi, Malaysia

ABSTRACTEcotourism is a normative concept defined and driven by generalized principles concerning local livelihoods and conservation of natural and cultural environments. Supply-side studies considering the applicability of these principles in practice are limited. In particular, an understanding of how entrepreneurialism shapes ecotourism is largely absent from the literature. We investigate the intersection of entrepreneurialism, ecotourism, and governance using a case study of actors at the Kilim Karst Geoforest Park (KKGP) in Langkawi, Malaysia, which has seen a rapid rise in entrepreneurial “ecotourism” activities. However, levels of competition between actors, their perceptions of ecotourism, and the challenges and tensions they face are unknown. To address this, a “hierarchy of entrepreneurship” is presented, grouping actors into three tiers: governing institutions, tour companies, and independent entrepreneurs, from whom qualitative data are elicited. Opinions and contestations between and among tiers are elucidated around themes including how understandings of ecotourism influence entrepreneurial strategies, and how challenges and tensions may inhibit the economic, social, and environmental sustainability of ecotourism at KKGP. The study demonstrates that the normative dogma guiding how ecotourism should be practised must be balanced against the diverse understandings, motivations, and capacities of ecotourism entrepreneurs on the ground and the effectiveness of governance systems.

Evolução espaço-temporal do uso do solo na estação ecológica do rangedor e seu entorno

A criação de Unidades de Conservação (UC) representa um instrumento essencial para a conservação de ambientes naturais, principalmente nas regiões metropolitanas, como é o caso da Estação Ecológica do Rangedor - ESEC, caracterizada como unidade de Proteção Integral que permite somente o uso indireto dos recursos naturais. Neste trabalho aborda-se a evolução espaço-temporal do uso da terra da ESEC do Rangedor e seu entorno (1 km), nos anos de 1976, 2001 e 2012, a fim de analisar a dinâmica das mudanças espaço-temporais e se a UC está sendo efetiva na sua função ecológica. Com este propósito, utilizaram-se as ferramentas de geoprocessamento e sensoriamento remoto, além de expedições de campo, visando compreender a dinâmica dos impactos ambientais no comprometimento dos habitats e componentes ecológicos da área protegida e os aspectos geoambientais e socioeconômicos que permeiam a problemática hídrica na Estação Ecológica do Rangedor Constatou-se que houve uma expressiva redução da drenagem na área protegida, além da ocorrência de outros impactos como desmatamento, invasão de espécies alóctones, queimadas e deposição de resíduos sólidos, que comprometem os atributos e o enquadramento da unidade de conservação na categoria de proteção integral. Por outro lado, apesar de todos os problemas ambientais observados neste estudo, a existência da ESEC oferece a possibilidade de recuperação da vegetação natural e atua efetivamente contra a ameaça de expansão imobiliária para o interior da área protegida.

Ubuntu is Not Only about the Human! An Analysis of the Role of African Philosophy and Ethics in Environment Management

A Marxist discourse on metabolic rift is used to examine the alienation of Africans from their environment and religious connections by capitalism and urbanisation. The paper emphasises the understanding of Ubuntu as an intimate relationship between humans and the natural environment. Indeed, the epitomisation of Ubuntu centres on the consolidation of the human, natural and spiritual tripartite. The paper shows that such a tripartite relationship allows Africans to transpose their Ubuntuness (humanness) and moral obligations not only to their fellow human beings, but also to the surrounding natural environment, including wildlife. Despite the usefulness of Ubuntu in the conservation of natural environments, the paper questions its effectiveness particularly in a capitalist and urbanised society where Africans are continually alienated from the natural environment.