Conservation Breeding Programs Research Articles

The Concept of Agency, Animal Wellbeing, and the Practical Realities of Ex Situ Breeding Programs in Zoos and Aquariums

Conservation and animal wellbeing are two key goals of the modern zoo and aquarium. In the case of ex situ conservation breeding programs, there is a unique paradox between these concepts; on some occasions, facilities must balance and mitigate arising conflicts between the wellbeing of animals with the goals of the conservation project. Exerting control over the reproductive lives of animals—choosing when and where they breed, whom they breed with, whether breeding is prohibited altogether, and so on—results in an inherent reduction in the animal’s agency. Considering the growing recognition that providing choice and control to animals enhances wellbeing, it is essential to examine how populations and their breeding are managed. The present review presents challenges in supporting agency for animals bred ex situ by thoroughly exploring the practical realities of working with these animals. Various challenges and areas of consideration, including current research directions, suggestions for future practices, and opportunities moving forward, are highlighted. The importance of careful population management in maximising wellbeing, including the inherent dichotomy of the necessity to limit some reproductive autonomy to preserve animal wellbeing while meeting the needs of breeding programs.

A genomic framework to assist conservation breeding and translocation success: A case study of a critically endangered turtle

AbstractConservation breeding programs are an effective approach to addressing biodiversity loss. Captive populations are managed to maintain genetic diversity, yet there remains an “implementation gap” in effectively translating molecular genetic data into management. Technological advancements are facilitating rapid generation of genetic data, increasing accessibility for breeding programs. In 2010, Frankham and colleagues proposed a six‐stage process for establishing successful conservation breeding and release programs. Here, we describe the conservation breeding program for the critically endangered Bellinger River turtle (Myuchelys georgesi) and characterize the value of genetic sampling for informing management actions. By generating a chromosome‐level genome and population genetic data, we investigated past and present diversity and assessed relatedness among captive founders. We present a framework modeled on Frankham and colleagues six stages to assist managers in implementing genetic data into actionable conservation strategies. This framework, and worked case study, for managers aims to better guide implementation of genetic approaches into conservation breeding programs.

Management lessons from a long‐term captive‐breeding program for a critically endangered species, Leadbeater's possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri

AbstractLeadbeater's possums (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) are a critically endangered marsupial found in a restricted area of cold, wet forest in South‐Eastern Australia. The majority of Leadbeater's possums inhabit highland forest, with one outlying lowland population. In 2012, a breeding program was established for the lowland Leadbeater's possums when this genetically distinct population faced imminent extinction. Successful reproduction by highland Leadbeater's possums in the international zoo‐based population between 1970 and 2010 led to the widespread belief that the species bred readily in captivity. Lowland possums have not bred in the 2012–2021 contemporary captive conservation breeding program. This study reviewed the historic captive‐breeding data and found that of the 84% (162/194) that reached reproductive maturity; 37% of males (n = 30) and 39.5% of females (n = 32) bred, and this success was highly skewed towards a subset of highly fecund individuals (14% of females and 15% of males produced 75% and 80% of all offspring). Although lack of reproductive output in the captive lowland animals could be explained if age at mortality was lower than that of highlands possums, comparison of the longevity of highland and lowland animals had no significant difference. Conservation objectives that specify how captive breeding may support in situ recovery of wild populations are integral to the success of captive programs. A lack of reflective analysis of past husbandry records allowed misconceptions of success and approaches implemented in the management of the breeding program, reducing the benefits for the conservation of this high profile threatened species. This case study provides a lesson for the management of conservation breeding programs and illustrates the importance of well‐defined conservation objectives, integration of in situ and ex situ strategies, and the importance of objective, systematic and timely analysis of available evidence to inform management objectives and improve conservation outcomes in real time.

Assessment of genetic diversity of Stephania rotunda Lour. collected in Northern Vietnam using RAPD and ISSR markers

Stephania rotunda Lour. is a valuable traditional medicinal plant that is in danger of extinction. This research aimed to examine the genetic relationship of 32 Stephania rotunda Lour. accessions collected in Vietnam by using RAPD and ISSR markers. 14 RAPD and 14 ISSR primers successfully detected 163 loci of which 133 (80.19%) were polymorphic and a total of 3047 scorable bands were obtained. The 14 RAPD markers produced 1346 scorable bands, 89.63% of which were polymorphic while 14 ISSR primers resulted in 1701 bands, 70.76% of which were polymorphic. The RAPD primers showed a mean PIC of 0.3 and Rp value of 2.28 while the average PIC and Rp indexes for ISSR markers were 0.20 and 1.47, respectively. UPGMA dendrogram obtained from cluster analysis of RAPD and ISSR combined data grouped 32 accessions into five clusters at 76% variation with Jaccard's similarity coefficient varying from 0.586 to 0.951. Moreover, principal component analysis was also used to determine genetic relationships among 32 collected accessions. The results showed high genetic dissimilarity among 32 Stephania rotunda Lour. Correlation analysis between the matrices of similarity coefficient was measured using Mantel’s test. A moderate correlation value (r = 0.543) between RAPD vs ISSR matrices, but the strong correlation value between RAPD and pooled data (r = 0.930) and between ISSR and combined matrices (r = 0.814) were obtained, suggesting a combination of RAPD and ISSR markers appears to be productive in studying the genetic variance in Stephania rotunda Lour. Our results could provide a solid foundation for further conservation management and breeding programs of Stephania rotunda Lour.

Genome assembly, Full-length transcriptome, and isoform diversity of Red Snapper, Lutjanus argentimaculatus

The mangrove red snapper, Lutjanus argentimaculatus, is a marine food fish of economic and aquaculture importance. The application of genomic selection-based breeding programs for this species is limited by the absence of a reference genome and transcriptome profiles. The current study attempted to fill this void by generating genomic and transcriptomic resources for red snapper. Using PacBio long reads, and Arima Hi-C linked reads, a scaffold-level genome assembly was generated for L. argentimaculatus. The assembly is of 1.03 Gb comprising of 400 scaffolds with N50 of 33.8 Mb and was assessed to be 97.2% complete upon benchmarking with BUSCO. Full-length transcriptome generated with PacBio Iso-Sequencing strategy using six tissues (muscle, gills, liver, kidney, stomach, and gonad) contained 56,515 isoforms belonging to 18,108 unique genes with N50 length of 3,973 bp. The resources generated will have potential applications in the functional studies, conservation, broodstock management and selective breeding programmes of L. argentimaculatus.

Scent of a frog: Can conservation detection dogs be used to locate endangered amphibians in the wild?

AbstractIn recent years, the potential to locate endangered animals using scent trained detection dogs (conservation detection dogs) has gained attention. Among vertebrates, conservation detection dogs have demonstrated a remarkable capacity to detect the scent of endangered mammals, reptiles, and birds, but their use in detecting amphibians is only beginning to be explored. A lack of work in this area is surprising given that amphibians are declining faster than any other vertebrate taxa. Moreover, amphibians are generally small, highly cryptic and breed in complex habitats, making them difficult to locate for the purpose of monitoring or establishing conservation breeding programs. This study aimed to provide a preliminary investigation into whether conservation detection dogs can be imprinted on the scent of the critically endangered Baw Baw frog (Philoria frosti) under captive conditions, and then effectively trained to locate wild frogs in their complex natural habitat. Two conservation detection dogs were trained to identify and locate P. frosti scent under controlled conditions before assessing their ability to locate wild P. frosti. Both conservation detection dogs were effective at locating P. frosti scent under controlled conditions, and also demonstrated an ability to detect live frogs under natural conditions. From an applied perspective, our findings provide new evidence that conservation detection dogs are capable of learning to detect the scent of small, cryptic anuran species. They also indicate that detection dogs are capable of locating frogs in highly complex forest habitat, confirming their untapped potential to aid in the management of imperiled species that have previously proven difficult to detect, monitor, and protect. We discuss the limitations of our approach and provide recommendations to help direct future amphibian conservation detection dog research.

Ecological Civilisation and Amphibian Sustainability through Reproduction Biotechnologies, Biobanking, and Conservation Breeding Programs (RBCs).

Intergenerational justice entitles the maximum retention of Earth's biodiversity. The 2022 United Nations COP 15, "Ecological Civilisation: Building a Shared Future for All Life on Earth", is committed to protecting 30% of Earth's terrestrial environments and, through COP 28, to mitigate the effects of the climate catastrophe on the biosphere. We focused this review on three core themes: the need and potential of reproduction biotechnologies, biobanks, and conservation breeding programs (RBCs) to satisfy sustainability goals; the technical state and current application of RBCs; and how to achieve the future potentials of RBCs in a rapidly evolving environmental and cultural landscape. RBCs include the hormonal stimulation of reproduction, the collection and storage of sperm and oocytes, and artificial fertilisation. Emerging technologies promise the perpetuation of species solely from biobanked biomaterials stored for perpetuity. Despite significant global declines and extinctions of amphibians, and predictions of a disastrous future for most biodiversity, practical support for amphibian RBCs remains limited mainly to a few limited projects in wealthy Western countries. We discuss the potential of amphibian RBCs to perpetuate amphibian diversity and prevent extinctions within multipolar geopolitical, cultural, and economic frameworks. We argue that a democratic, globally inclusive organisation is needed to focus RBCs on regions with the highest amphibian diversity. Prioritisation should include regional and international collaborations, community engagement, and support for RBC facilities ranging from zoos and other institutions to those of private carers. We tabulate a standard terminology for field programs associated with RBCs for publication and media consistency.

The importance of quantifying fitness-determining traits throughout life to assess the application of reproductive technologies for amphibian species recovery

The application of reproductive technologies to amphibian conservation breeding programs is gaining momentum and the field is poised to contribute significantly toward amphibian species recovery. We briefly discuss the opportunities for reproductive technologies to enhance conservation breeding outcomes, including their potential to enhance the genetic management, and in turn, the fitness of threatened species. Despite this potential, an important consideration that is not yet well understood is the degree to which specific reproductive technologies might influence (either enhance, or in some instances potentially decrease) individual fitness and lead to shifts in population viability. The development of a standardised approach to monitoring offspring throughout life-stages to detect changes to morphology, behaviour, physiology, survivorship, and developmental trajectories is essential. The primary focus of this review is to provide a ‘best-practise’ framework for quantifying key fitness determining traits expected to contribute to the fitness of individuals and long-term viability of populations, which will ultimately allow us to progress the field of amphibian reproductive technologies and assess the impact of protocol refinement.

Dietary niche of the endangered Psychedelic Rock Gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica) in southern Vietnam

Abstract The Psychedelic Rock Gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica), is a species endemic to southernmost Vietnam. It was recently assessed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List and also included in the CITES Appendix I, due to anthropogenic threats such as habitat degradation and over-collection for the pet trade. To protect wild populations and the natural habitat of this species, knowledge of its demography and ecology is essential to implement fitting conservation measures. In this study, we conducted field surveys on Hon Khoai Island, Ca Mau Province, southern Vietnam in both dry and wet seasons, and obtained food contents of 114 individuals of C. psychedelica by water-flushing the stomach without sacrificing them. Consequently, 685 invertebrate items were identified, belonging to 24 different prey types of 20 invertebrate orders, as well as flatworms, snails and plant parts. Araneae, Blattodea, Hymenoptera and Isoptera were identified as the most important prey of C. psychedelica, among which Araneae accounted for the highest percentage, and thus the highest importance index, during the dry season and Hymenoptera during the wet season. There was a large overlap in the trophic niche between the two seasons, and between males and females of C. psychedelica. This study shows that not only suitable habitat but also a particular food spectrum is a requirement for the species and this, in addition, is important to optimize conservation breeding programs.

Survival rates of wild and released White‐rumped Vultures (Gyps bengalensis), and their implications for conservation of vultures in Nepal

Beginning in the mid‐1990s, populations of three species of Gyps vultures declined by more than 97% in South Asia in little more than a decade, caused by unintentional poisoning by the non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac. This led to a ban on the veterinary use of the drug, and establishment of conservation breeding programmes, throughout the region. Once much of Nepal had been confirmed as being free from diclofenac, beginning in 2017 White‐rumped Vultures Gyps bengalensis were released from the captive breeding population. A total of 99 birds (n = 50 wild and n = 49 released) were fitted with GPS transmitters between 2017 and 2022 and monitored daily. Tag fixes suggesting death or ill‐health were followed up and dead vultures were retrieved for post‐mortem analysis. The estimated annual survival of wild adult vultures was 0.974 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.910–0.997), while that of wild subadults was 0.880 (95% CI 0.721–0.966). Survival rates of released birds were lower than those of wild birds, being 0.644 (95% CI 0.490–0.778) for adults and 0.758 (95% CI 0.579–0.887) for subadults. Post‐mortem analysis of dead vultures indicated several possible causes of death, including predation, infection and electrocution. There was no evidence that any birds died of NSAID poisoning. The high survival rates of wild birds, especially adults, and the lack of evidence for NSAID‐caused mortality, suggest that vulture habitat in the Nepal Vulture Safe Zone is free from diclofenac and that other hazards are sufficiently infrequent to allow the vulture population to recover. The lower survival of released birds compared with their wild counterparts suggests a need to improve the conservation breeding programme and release protocol.

Evaluating the role of caretaker‐rated personality traits for reproductive outcomes in a highly endangered Hawaiian corvid

AbstractPersonality studies are increasingly relevant and applicable to a broad range of conservation issues, including a role for selecting compatible mates in conservation breeding programs (CBPs). Choosing compatible breeding pairs is essential for maximizing reproductive success in CBPs, which provide assurance populations for species facing extinction and candidates for translocation to support wild populations. We investigated the value of caretaker‐assessed personality ratings of the critically endangered ‘Alalā (Hawaiian Crow, Corvus hawaiiensis) in predicting reproductive outcomes: nest quality, fertile egg production, and hatchability in the ‘Alalā CBP. Caretakers used well‐defined operational definitions to rate 22 personality traits for 69 male and 59 female ‘Alalā, achieving high inter‐rater agreement (ICC ≥ 0.85) for 8 traits – aggressive, bold/fearless, fearful, imprinted/abnormal, inept, submissive, territorial, and tendency to feather pluck (a stereotypic behavior) – used in a principal components analysis to distill intercorrelated variables into three principal components. While we did not find that personality influences nest quality or hatchability (based on limiting inferences to fixed effects with high relative importance scores; ≥0.8), we found some evidence that pairs with males that were more territorial/aggressive and fearful than their mates had a higher probability of egg fertilization, but there was substantial variability in this relationship, with confidence intervals overlapping zero. These personality traits may influence pair dynamics, enhancing compatibility, may predict better pair coordination on the nest, or both. Our results highlight the ability of caretakers to successfully identify ‘Alalā personality traits and provide some support for integrating personality into the pairing process; however, further research is needed to understand the value of ‘Alalā personality as a mate selection tool. The application of similar approaches to enhance CBP performance in other taxa is promising, but will require overcoming methodological challenges surrounding the complexity of data collection and interpretation of consistency among raters.

The influence of pair duration on reproductive success in the monogamous ‘Alalā (Hawaiian crow, Corvus hawaiiensis)

Conservation breeding program practitioners select potential mates in an attempt to maximize pair compatibility and maintain genetic diversity. Therefore, pair duration, or the number of breeding seasons that individuals retain the same mate, is practitioner-determined in these settings. There is a critical need to evaluate whether pair duration influences reproductive success in ex situ assurance populations, particularly for socially monogamous species. The ‘Alalā (Hawaiian crow, Corvus hawaiiensis) is a monogamous forest bird that is currently extinct in the wild. Today, ‘Alalā exist only in human care for intensive conservation breeding. We analyzed breeding program data from 2018-2021 to determine the effects of ‘Alalā pair duration and age on reproduction (nest building, egg laying, hatching, and fledging). We found that pair duration does not influence reproductive outcomes, and thus practitioners can be more proactive when re-pairing birds. Female and male age, on the other hand, influenced the probability of nest building, clutch production, and overall reproductive success. Nest building and clutch production probabilities were high (near 1) and stable as females aged from 2 to ~ 12 years old, declining sharply thereafter. In males, overall reproductive success (from building robust nests to rearing at least one nestling to fledge) increased with age from 2 to ~ 9 years old, peaked and reached an asymptote with males ≳ 9 to ~ 13 years old, and decreased in males ≳ 13 years old. Thus, integrating age into the pair selection process will increase the likelihood of achieving conservation goals. To our knowledge, we are the first to utilize empirical pair duration results to provide specific management recommendations for mate selection in an avian conservation breeding program. Our findings have critical utility for guiding ‘Alalā pairing decisions, and more broadly underscore the importance of evaluating mate retention and selection protocols in other conservation breeding programs.

First successful artificial insemination of the endangered Louisiana pinesnake, Pituophis ruthveni.

The Louisiana pinesnake (Pituophis ruthveni) is considered one of the rarest snakes in North America and was federally listed under the Endangered Species Act in 2018. Captive breeding and reintroduction of zoo-bred hatchlings has been successful, however, limited founders in the captive population and the inability to bring new, wild genes into the captive colony presents a major concern for the conservation of this species. The use of artificial insemination (AI) was first applied to snakes in the 1980s but further development of the technique has since received little attention. Our goal was to develop a method of AI for use in breeding Louisiana pinesnakes to facilitate gene flow from wild to captive populations. We inseminated two captive Louisiana pinesnakes with semen collected from one donor male, novel to both females. Timing of AI occurred following the emergence of females from brumation, and when large, distinct follicles were detected using digital palpation. Females were inseminated four and five times over a period of 14 and 19 days, respectively, using fresh and 2-day refrigerator stored semen. One female laid seven eggs, which resulted in four fertile eggs and two viable hatchlings, while the second female produced three fertile of seven eggs laid but no viable hatchlings. Genetic analyses confirmed the donor male was the sire of hatchlings. This is the first successful AI of an endangered snake species and provides a framework for the use and optimization of assisted reproductive technologies for use in conservation breeding programs.

The impact of management on the fecal microbiome of endangered greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in a zoo-based conservation program.

Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) are a critically endangered species in Canada with fewer than 140 individuals remaining on native habitats in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 2014, the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo initiated North America's only zoo-based conservation breeding program for this species to bolster declining wild populations through conservation reintroductions. Within the managed population of sage-grouse, morbidity and mortality have primarily been associated with intestinal bacterial infections. As a preliminary study to assess the gastrointestinal health of this species in managed care, the fecal bacterial microbiome of adult and juvenile captive sage-grouse was characterized with 16S rRNA sequencing. The composition of the microbiome at the phylum level in greater sage-grouse is consistent with previous studies of the avian microbiome, with Bacillota as the most abundant phyla, and Actinomycetota, Bacteroidota and Pseudomonadota also being highly abundant. Antibiotic use and sex did not have a significant impact on the diversity or composition of the microbiome, but the management of juvenile sage-grouse did influence the development of the microbiome. Juveniles that were raised outdoors under maternal care developed a microbiome much more similar to adults when compared to chicks that were incubated and hand-raised. The local environment and parental care appear to be important factors influencing the diversity and composition of the gastrointestinal microbiome in this species.

Captivity conditions matter for the gut microbiota of an endangered obligate hibernator.

Conservation breeding programmes include translocations of animals across breeding facilities, both in and ex situ, and to/from their natural habitat. Newly reintroduced Vancouver Island marmots (VIMs) originating from the captive breeding programme are known to experience high winter mortality once reintroduced. Whilst high winter mortality rates amongst reintroduced VIM populations remain a concern of unknown causes, this health issue could potentially be linked to changes in gut microbiota prior to hibernation. Furthermore, captivity is known to impact the gut microbiota of mammals that could be crucial for hibernation. In this study, we explored the diversity of bacterial communities in the gut of captive marmots during the entire active season, both kept in captivity at in situ and ex situ facilities, as well as free-ranging marmots during the summer period. Gut microbial diversity was higher in marmots held in ex situ facilities, outside of their habitat range, compared to captive marmots held within their habitat range, and in the wild, and differences in composition were also observed. In the entire active season, animals kept in the ex situ facility had increased abundance in taxa known to be mucin degraders, sulphate producers and possible cross-feeders, whilst an increase in fibre degraders of in situ and free-ranging marmots is potentially linked to diet variation between facilities. These results confirm the interest to transfer animals held at zoos to an in situ facility before relocation and expand our understanding of microbiota variation according to hibernation cycles in the context of conservation biology.

Cryopreservation Cooling Rate Impacts Post-Thaw Sperm Motility and Survival in Litoria booroolongensis.

The cryopreservation and storage of gametes (biobanking) can provide a long-term, low-cost option for the preservation of population genetic diversity and is particularly impactful when applied to manage selective breeding within conservation breeding programs (CBPs). This study aimed to develop a sperm cryopreservation protocol for the critically endangered Booroolong frog (Litoria booroolongensis) to capture founder genetics within the recently established (est. 2019) CBP for this species. Hormone-induced sperm release was achieved using established protocols, and spermic urine samples were collected over a 6-h period. Pooled spermic urine samples (n = 3 males) were divided equally between two cryoprotectant (CPA) treatments and diluted by 1:5 (sperm:CPA) with either 15% (v/v) dimethyl sulfoxide + 1% (w/v) sucrose in simplified amphibian Ringer's (SAR; CPAA) or 10% (v/v) dimethylformamide + 10% (w/v) trehalose dihydrate in SAR (CPAB). The samples were cryopreserved in 0.25 mL straws using either a programmable freezer (FrA) or an adapted dry shipper method (FrB). The thawed samples were activated via dilution in water and assessed for viability and motility using both manual assessment and computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA; 0 h, 0.5 h post-thaw). Upon activation, the survival and recovery of motility (total motility, forward progression and velocity) of cryopreserved sperm suspensions were higher for sperm preserved using FrB than FrA, regardless of CPA composition. This work supports our long-term goal to pioneer the integration of biobanked cryopreserved sperm with population genetic management to maximize restoration program outcomes for Australian amphibian species.

Core Collection Formation in Guatemalan Wild Avocado Germplasm with Phenotypic and SSR Data

Guatemala’s wild avocado germplasm holds vital genetic value, but lacking conservation strategies imperils it. Studying its diversity is pivotal for conservation and breeding. The study aimed to comprehensively assess the wild avocado germplasm in Guatemala by combining phenotypic and genotypic data and to create a core collection for conservation and future breeding programs. A total of 189 mature avocado trees were sampled across Guatemala’s northern, southern, and western regions. Morphological characteristics were documented, and genetic diversity was assessed using 12 SSR loci. The investigated germplasm revealed three distinct genetic clusters, exhibiting an average gene diversity of 0.796 and a 7.74% molecular variation among them. The samples showed various morphological characteristics that indicate the presence of three avocado races in Guatemala. The weak correlation between phenotypic and genotypic distances highlighted their independence and complementary nature. The joint matrix effectively integrated and captured genotypic and phenotypic data for comprehensive genetic diversity analysis. A core collection comprising 20% of total accessions that captured maximum genetic diversity was formed. This study exposed wild Guatemalan avocados’ genetic diversity, morphological traits, and conservation significance. Integrated data capture via clustering validates holistic genetic insight for conservation and breeding strategies.

From Captivity to Conservation Success: A Review on the Mouse Deer Breeding Program and its Implications for Biodiversity Preservation

Captive breeding has become an important tool for conserving threatened species. The success of these conservation programs depends on the survival of species through self-sustaining populations managed by scientific values. Mouse deer is a primitive deer that plays a crucial role in the forest ecosystem as a key seed disperser and forms significant prey for both small and large predators. Despite its significance, little is known about this species' mating behavior and reproductive physiology in both the wild and captivity. As part of the conservation breeding and species recovery program, a breeding program of mouse deer started with the aim of breeding them in captivity and release them into the wild to preserve the biodiversity. This program began with six founder individuals and we observed a remarkable increase of 400 individuals within 10 years. These captive-bred individuals have been successfully introduced into the wild. This paper presents a comprehensive review of potential factors required for the successful breeding program and also provides recommendations on future directions and perspectives of conservation breeding program of mouse deer and other species.

Behavior of addax (Addax nasomaculatus) and Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) mothers and calves during the calves’ first day of life

Successful reproduction, which is central to conservation breeding programs, comprises many stages, culminating in production of healthy young. Effective management of these programs relies, among other things, on accurate information on basic behavioral patterns. Yet, especially for species that are active through the night, such data are lacking. This study focused on adult female addax (N = 7) and Arabian oryx (N = 6), two antelope species prioritized by the international zoo community, using video to record behavior of mothers 1 h before and of mothers and calves during the first 24 h following birth. In the hour before giving birth, mothers were restless but all were recumbent during parturition. Most mothers stood and began licking their calves within a few minutes, and most calves stood within the first 2 h. Addax calves began nursing sooner (mean 1 h 42 min) than oryx calves (mean 4 h 45 min). Although the first nursing bout was longer for oryx than addax calves, the mean nursing bout length (addax: 1 min 26 s, oryx: 1 min 3 s) and total duration of nursing for the full 24 h (addax: 38 min 42 s, oryx: 28 min 51 s) did not differ. Both species spent most of the 24 h in proximity (>70 %), concentrated in the first hours after birth, with a trend for less time in proximity across the 24 h. Addax mothers appeared to be more attentive, spending more time licking/grooming their calves, especially in the first hours. Calves of both species spent most of the 24 h lying down (addax: 84.5 %, oryx: 66.7 %). There was a wide range of variation in most parameters within both species, emphasizing individual differences. Further studies will be necessary to investigate possible influences of factors such as parity and sex of calf. Nevertheless, the results of this study should be helpful to animal managers as well as to field biologists in understanding the behavioral dynamics of addax and Arabian oryx maternal care and neonatal calf behavior that occur during the first critical 24 h of an infant’s life.

Geckos in zoos: A global approach on distribution patterns of threatened geckos (Gekkota) in zoological institutions

According to the One Plan Approach to Conservation, proposed by the IUCN SSC Conservation Planning Specialist Group (CPSG), there is, besides in situ conservation measures, also increased need for ex situ conservation breeding of threatened taxa. To gain a better overview of the current situation, we have compiled information from the zoo databases ZIMS (Zoological Information Management System) and ZTL (Zootierliste) on the husbandry of gecko species (suborder Gekkota) worldwide. Only 9.3 % (n = 201) of the 2151 currently recognized gecko species from seven families were kept according to ZIMS, of which about 20.4 % (n = 41) were classified as threatened. Most species were kept in European, North American and Australian zoos. Many of the species were kept outside the natural distributional range hotspots of geckos. However, institutions in Oceania kept mainly native geckos. The species richness of the natural distributional ranges of zoo-kept geckos was highest in Australia, Southeast Asia, Madagascar and lowest in South America. About 38.0 % (n = 25) of zoo-kept species with a successful breeding record were threatened, and most reproductive successes of threatened species have been recorded from only one institution per species. Although Gekkota is the most species-rich group among lizards (Sauria), they are still relatively poorly represented in zoological institutions, and most of the kept species are not threatened. Zoos inside and outside the distributional range can play a key role in conservation (breeding) programs, when they continue to provide their expertise and resources for the buildup of insurance colonies for threatened taxa. Preferably this is carried out in cooperation with experts and conservation centers from the species’ range countries and also in cooperation with Citizen Conservation programs.