Conifer Plantations Research Articles

Multiple-Win Effects and Beneficial Implications from Analyzing Long-Term Variations of Carbon Exchange in a Subtropical Coniferous Plantation in China

To improve our understanding of the carbon balance, it is significant to study long-term variations of all components of carbon exchange and their driving factors. Gross primary production (GPP), respiration (Re), and net ecosystem productivity (NEP) from the hourly to the annual sums in a subtropical coniferous forest in China during 2003–2017 were calculated using empirical models developed previously in terms of PAR (photosynthetically active radiation), and meteorological parameters, GPP, Re, and NEP were calculated. The calculated GPP, Re, and NEP were in reasonable agreement with the observations, and their seasonal and interannual variations were well reproduced. The model-estimated annual sums of GPP and Re over 2003–2017 were larger than the observations of 11.38% and 5.52%, respectively, and the model-simulated NEP was lower by 34.99%. The GPP, Re, and NEP showed clear interannual variations, and both the calculated and the observed annual sums of GPPs increased on average by 1.04% and 0.93%, respectively, while the Re values increased by 4.57% and 1.06% between 2003 and 2017. The calculated and the observed annual sums of NEPs/NEEs (net ecosystem exchange) decreased/increased by 1.04%/0.93%, respectively, which exhibited an increase of the carbon sink at the experimental site. During the period 2003–2017, the annual averages of PAR and the air temperature decreased by 0.28% and 0.02%, respectively, while the annual average water vapor pressure increased by 0.87%. The increase in water vapor contributed to the increases of GPP, Re, and NEE in 2003–2017. Good linear and non-linear relationships were found between the monthly calculated GPP and the satellite solar-induced fluorescence (SIF) and then applied to compute GPP with relative biases of annual sums of GPP of 5.20% and 4.88%, respectively. Large amounts of CO2 were produced in a clean atmosphere, indicating a clean atmospheric environment will enhance CO2 storage in plants, i.e., clean atmosphere is beneficial to human health and carbon sink, as well as slowing down climate warming.

Dynamic Changes of Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Community Along A Karst Coniferous Plantation Chronosequence

Dynamic Changes of Rhizosphere Soil Microbial Community Along A Karst Coniferous Plantation Chronosequence

Uncovering hazards and adaptive capacity: A comprehensive risk assessment study in three conservation areas in Spain

The increase in the frequency, duration and severity of disturbances can disrupt forest composition and structure, posing threats to ecosystem services. Adaptive forest management has the potential to adjust forests to future disturbance regimes, by reducing their susceptibility to these threats and, therefore, increasing their adaptation capacity. However, few comprehensive studies have integrated the factors involved in adaptive forest management by comparing the biomass of national parks of the same region, or examined how global change might affect them in the near future. In this study, we integrate data of forest inventories, wildfires, high-resolution climate and pests information in climate model projections to assess climate-sensitive risks associated with key abiotic disturbances (such as fires, droughts and pests) in coniferous Mediterranean mountain forests, considering various forest management approaches and climate scenarios in three Spanish national parks. We employed the conceptual framework introduced by Lecina-Diaz et al. (2021a) to evaluate risks to forests and considered Exposed values (E), Hazard Magnitude (HM), Susceptibility (S) and Lack of Adaptive Capacity (LAC). We applied statistical weights using expert weights and the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) as the basis for determining the global ranking score of each indicator of the risk components. We extracted information about the climatic scenarios from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6. Three forest management scenarios were generated, named “low intervention», «traditional silviculture”, and "reduction of climate vulnerability", and mapped the risks of carbon sequestration for the different scenarios. The importance of each component was estimated using the AHP. HM was most significantly affected by the Aridity Index and the Fire Risk Index, with weights of 27.7 % and 24.2 %, respectively; S was affected by fuel load (29.0 %) and the Suppression Difficulty index (21.0 %), and LAC was influenced by forest management (32.0 %) and resprouting capacity (22.0 %). The three forest management scenarios exhibited different risk values that decreased with increasing intensity of the intervention in the three protected areas. Likewise, when two climate scenarios were considered, risk increased in the protected areas (Teide National Park, 10.69 %; Sierra Nevada National Park, 10.9 %; Sierra de las Nieves National Park, 6.17 %). Patterns of spatial arrangement of risk, which included HM, S and LAC, were consistent with the risk level, with the highest risk values being concentrated in the buffer areas (natural parks), with areas with a greater presence of coniferous plantations. The risk maps allowed us to identify areas that are critical under extreme conditions and where the greatest disturbance events may occur. Our study underscores that risks of disturbances in mountain ecosystems dominated by conifers within protected areas can be mitigated by forest management. The application of forest management adaptation strategies in national parks and buffer areas has proven effective in reducing risks of disturbances and preserving certain ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration.

Distribution and Density of Common Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) in Central Northern Bulgaria

The breeding density of the Woodpigeon was determined in square LH75 in the period from March to May 2023. For this purpose, a point counting method was used, and in addition, some characteristics of the habitats were taken into account. The breeding density of Woodpigeon in the present study was 16.42, 12.75 and 14.44 pairs/100ha, in March, April and May 2023 year, respectively. Breeding density decreases from March to May. Anova analysis showed statistically significant differences in the mean number of song pigeons by habitat and cropland types (F=8.11, p=0.005). The number of song Woodpigeons was significantly greater in open habitats with single large trees or small groups of large trees among grassland and meadows than in other breeding habitat types. Their number is relatively high in Silver lime forests, coniferous plantations, and in the fringe strip of all forest habitats. The number of song pigeons is also relatively high in cases where we have a lack of arable land in the fixed radius or in the presence of wheat. Their number in the fixed radius increased with increasing average tree height. The number of singing pigeons is positively correlated with tree height (R=0.49, F=2.132, p<0.0001). The latest data on the breeding density of the Woodpigeon are from the end of the last century in Bulgaria. This study presents first results on the breeding distribution and density of the species in an information-poor area.

Rainfall interception in temperate evergreen broadleaved forest and Japanese cypress plantation with abundant lower-layer vegetation in south-west Japan

ABSTRACT The interception of rainfall in conifer plantations has been intensively studied. However, research on broadleaved forests is limited, although the broadleaved forests dominate approximately half of forest area in Japan. Here, we compared the throughfall and stemflow of each vegetation layer to clarify interception in a naturally regenerated temperate evergreen broadleaved forest (lucidophyllous forest) and a Japanese cypress plantation over a three-year period. Both forests were approximately 100 years old and had abundant lower-layer vegetation. We found that approximately a quarter of rainfall was intercepted in both forests, although the half of that interception in the Japanese cypress plantation was owing to the abundant lower-layer vegetation. This indicated that the interception in the evergreen broadleaved forest was twice that of the Japanese cypress upper canopy. The well-developed layer structure in the evergreen broadleaved forest efficiently intercepted rainfall. From the point of view of water resource management, this study implies that both evergreen broadleaved forests and Japanese cypress plantations with abundant lower-layer vegetation can decrease the amount of water infiltrating soils.

Potential for large losses of carbon from non-native conifer plantations on deep peat over decadal timescales

Peatland drainage is a large source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. While conversion to agriculture is widely acknowledged to lead to “irrecoverable” carbon (C) losses, in contrast the C impacts of peatland forestry are poorly understood, especially in intensively managed plantations. Losses of C from peat oxidation are highly variable and can be compensated for by gains of C in trees, depending on the lifecycle of the timber and timescale considered. Here, we used ITRAX scanning to enable rapid detection of the Hekla 4 cryptotephra layer as a reliable chronological marker above which peat properties and C stocks could be compared between open and afforested blanket bog cores in the Flow Country of Northern Scotland. At one site, Bad a’ Cheò, we combine replicated core pair comparisons (n = 19) with timber extraction data to derive net ecosystem C balance over the lifetime of the plantation. Here the reduction in peat C carbon storage above Hekla 4 in afforested samples (67 t C ha−1) is only partially compensated by tree C sequestration (47 t C ha−1), leading to a net ecosystem C balance indicating a loss of 20 t C ha−1 over the 50 years since the plantation was established. At that site, ∼65 % of tree C rapidly returned to the atmosphere, as it was primarily used for heat and power generation. Across the wider Flow country region, a simplified paired sampling method was adopted at eight further sites, finding a either a loss or negligible change in peat C storage above Hekla 4 in afforested samples with a mean loss of 86 t C ha−1 and median loss of 50 t C ha−1. This study suggests that potentially substantial C losses have been an unintended consequence of non-native conifer afforestation over deep blanket bogs.

Effects of heterogenous forest environments on ground‐dwelling beetles in a conifer plantation

AbstractIt is widely recognized that heterogeneous environments promote biodiversity. Consequently, we investigated whether heterogeneous environments influence the diversity of ground‐dwelling beetles within a well‐managed conifer plantation forest. We collected carabid beetles, and necrophagous silphid and dung beetles (necrophagous beetles) using pitfall traps at 37 sites with or without fish meat bait. The result of a two‐dimensional principal component analysis (PCA) utilizing environmental indices measured at each site suggested that the environmental heterogeneity depended on the survival density of planted conifers, serving as an indicator of historical gap formation levels. Gaps populated by invading broadleaved trees exhibited low canopy opening percentages and understory cover degrees, while those filled by the growth of planted conifers displayed the opposite conditions. The presence of bait had a negligible impact on carabid beetles but significantly influenced necrophagous beetles. No significant relationships were found between the scores of PCA components and the beetle species richness, suggesting that a heterogeneous environment does not increase the beetle species diversities. However, significant relationships were observed with the scores on nonmetric multidimensional scaling axes, indicating that a heterogeneous environment contributes to the complexity of beetle assemblages. The most dominant carabid, Synuchus cycloderus, was abundant in areas where historical gap formation was thought to be more prevalent. Among necrophagous beetles, Pherotrupes laevistriatus and Panelus parvulus preferred habitats with darker environments, in contrast to Onthophagus fodiens and O. nitidus. This study will aid in developing forestry practices aimed at conserving specific ground‐dwelling beetle species within conifer plantations.

Leaf phenology and paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental insights derived from Yiwupitys elegans of the Yiwu Jurassic Forest, Xinjiang, China

Many permineralized conifer stems and trunks have been documented from the Jurassic strata of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Xinjiang), Northwest China. Xylem anatomical studies have showed that these stems and trunks belonged to a diverse range of plants. However, the leaf phenology and the paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental significance of these fossil plants have rarely been studied. We quantitatively analyzed the anatomical characteristics of a permineralized conifer stem—Yiwupitys elegans Gou et Feng 2023—from the Middle Jurassic Xishanyao Formation in northeastern Xinjiang, which has distinct and wide growth rings in the secondary xylem. Analyses of the Mean Sensitivity and Ring Markedness Index of the growth rings suggest that a stable paleoclimate with regular seasonal fructifications likely prevailed during the Middle Jurassic in this area. The statistical analyses of cell diameters and anatomical features of leaf traces in six successive growth rings indicate that this fossil plant was deciduous. Our study elucidates the ecophysiological characteristics of a Middle Jurassic conifer plant and provides new insights into the corresponding paleoclimate and paleoenvironment based on quantitative cellular analysis of the fossil stem.

Moths respond to key habitat structures in conifer plantations managed as irregular high forest

Conifer plantations need to deliver greater multi-functionality beyond the production of timber. This includes the support of biodiversity and associated ecosystem functioning. Forest managers are increasingly adopting novel, more sustainable forest management techniques such as irregular silviculture, a type of continuous cover forestry, to manage plantations, in response to climate change. This may confer benefits to important elements of woodland biodiversity such as moths, by creating plantations that have diverse vertical structure and a permanent canopy (called irregular high forest). In this study at two estates in south-west Britain we specifically tested whether moth species richness and abundance (at the guild and overall level) were associated with (1) surrounding land cover types and (2) habitat structures within stands undergoing transformation using irregular silviculture. A total of 268 species of 11,582 individuals were recorded. Moths responded to all four landscape cover types, negatively to arable and conifer woodland, positively for broadleaf woodland, and both positively and negatively for improved grassland. Moth richness and abundance had a positive association with basal area (albeit below standard even aged stocking rates with most plots around 40–45 m2ha) and a weak positive association with higher vertical structural complexity (indicated by a more developed understorey and sub-canopy layers). Moth abundance had a moderate positive association with broadleaf canopy where we recommend plantations should have at least 10–15 % broadleaf canopy cover. Moth richness and abundance were negatively associated to mean tree diameter and canopy openness. Many of these features are more prevalent in stands further progressed towards irregular high forest. We show how moth communities can be maintained via more sustainable forestry management techniques that increase overall habitat and structural complexity.

Эколого-биологическая характеристика медоносных растений Удмуртской Республики

Abstract. The purpose is to analyze honey–bearing resources, biological forms and species diversity of natural, cultural and adventitious honey-bearing flora in the territory of the Udmurt Republic to create a scheme-map of the honey conveyor. Methods. In the study of this issue “Methods of conducting research in beekeeping” (2003), “Plant determinant of Udmurtia” were used. Results. As of January 1, 2023, the area of agricultural land in all land categories amounted to 1838.3 thousand ha, or 43.7 %, non-gricultural land – 2367.8 thousand hectares, or 56.3 % of the total land fund of the Udmurt Republic. The area of coniferous plants has increased by an average of 38 % since 1966, and hardwood by 35 %. The dynamics of the increase in areas for many species is positive – pine, spruce, ash, elm, alder, linden, willows. The life forms of honey plants of the republic have a different ratio: the largest number of 73 species are grasses (65.2 %), 29 are trees (25.8 %) and 10 are shrubs (9 %). When analyzing data on the flowering of honey plants in Udmurtia, most plants bloom in the off-season – 72.5 %, 25.8 % – in summer, spring. There are plants of prolonged flowering, and honey plants that bloom only in September are absent. The main honey-bearing crop is small-leaved linden. It has a large honey reserve; its specific weight of honey reserve is 90.92 %. To develop the honey reserve of the Udmurt Republic, it is necessary to have a number of bee colonies 4.5 times higher than the current level, which is 224.75 thousand bee colonies. Scientific novelty. Beekeeping in the Udmurt Republic is a promising area of agriculture in the development of forest and agricultural lands, the possibility of improving it and using the export of bees to the honey harvest, taking into account the flowering time of honeybees of natural and agricultural honeybees and active nomads.

Green infrastructure as a factor of sustainable urban development: current status and prospects

Abstract The article reflects the results of the assessment of the current state and functioning of the green infrastructure of the urban environment. A thorough survey of the territory and a clear functional zoning were carried out. A study of the features of Landscaping and landscaping of urban forests was conducted and a whole range of issues related to the formation of a full-fledged environment for human recreation was identified. The research has established plants that can withstand high temperature conditions and low humidity, high levels of dust and gases in the air of the urban environment, soil compaction, etc. In the course of research, it was revealed that coniferous plants play a large role in the creation of decorative compositions. For a shaded lawn, special types of herbs are used that can do without direct sunlight. Local creators and artists can be involved in the creation of unusual forest art objects. This will create additional interest in visiting and contribute to the dissemination of information about the city and its attractions on social networks, creating an attractive tourist image. The improvement of the city’s forest area will create opportunities for organizing full-fledged recreation for urban residents, and will have a beneficial effect on their psychological and physical condition. Thus, a sufficient number of well-maintained public spaces have a positive effect on the physical and psycho-emotional health of a city dweller, on the effectiveness of his work.

Optimistic growth of marginal region plantations under climate warming: Assessing divergent drought resilience.

Given the context of significant global warming and the intensification of extreme climate events in the last century, large-scale reforestation and afforestation have been recognized as effective strategies to mitigate the climate crisis. Since the 1970s, China has launched several afforestation programs aimed at regional ecological protection, playing an important role in reaching carbon neutrality by 2060. This study provided a detailed analysis of the growth suitability of the main planted conifers (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica and Pinus tabulaeformis) and broadleaves (Populus spp., Robinia pseudoacacia) in the semi-arid northern China. We compared the radial growth trends of plantations and their responses to extreme droughts from 1980 to 2018. Growth of most plantations has significantly increased over time, but broadleaves showed recent growth reductions in the past decade, which may be related to tree age and reduced soil moisture. Nevertheless, under warmer climate scenarios, the growth of plantations is forecasted to continue increasing. Broadleaves showed a better post-drought recovery, probably linked to their anisohydric behavior, than conifers, which presented a better resistance to drought. Growth of conifers depended more on warmer temperature and better precipitation conditions during the growing season, whereas broadleaves mainly reacted to warm temperature. Additionally, pre-drought growth levels weakened resilience components, while post-drought precipitation compensated for drought-induced growth deficit. Growth and resilience were negatively related to tree age, while higher stand density reduced growth. This assessment and projections of growth and drought resilience indicate the sustainability of most plantations in semi-arid regions, but future warmer and drier conditions may lead to an uncertain future regarding forest health and reduce their carbon sink potential.

Reactive oxygen species in pollination drops of coniferous plants

Reactive oxygen species in pollination drops of coniferous plants

Effect of conifer afforestation on the occurrence and food availability for Zaedyus pichiy (Xenarthra: Chlamyphoridae) in the north-western Patagonian steppe of Argentina

Abstract The grasslands and shrub areas of the Patagonian steppe are the most frequent habitat for the “Near Threatened” armadillo, known as pichi (Zaedyus pichiy). Dense exotic conifer plantations are replacing the steppe in Argentinean northern Patagonia. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of conifer afforestation on the occurrence and food availability in a Z. pichiy population in north-western Patagonia. Fifteen sites in the native steppe and 50 in exotic pine plantations were sampled. We recorded the number of signs of pichi’s presence and the diversity of invertebrates. Signs of Z. pichiy presence decreased in pine afforestation compared to the native steppe. Additionally, we found a decrease in the abundance, richness, diversity, and biomass of arthropods in pine plantations. Therefore, the presence of pine plantations in the steppe reduces the main food items of Z. pichiy and also eliminates the native steppe vegetation structure that provides preferred places to dig burrows. Pine monocultures do not provide a suitable habitat for Z. pichiy and may exacerbate the degradation of an already disturbed environment.

Soil phosphorus cycling microbial functional genes of monoculture and mixed plantations of native tree species in subtropical China.

Transforming coniferous plantation into broadleaved or mixed broadleaved-coniferous plantations is the tendency of forest management strategies in subtropical China. However, the effects of this conversion on soil phosphorus (P) cycling microbial functional genes are still unknown. Soil samples were collected from 0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm (topsoil, middle layer, and subsoil, respectively) under coniferous Pinus massoniana (PM), broadleaved Erythrophleum fordii (EF), and their mixed (PM/EF) plantation in subtropical China. Used metagenomic sequencing to examine the alterations of relative abundances and molecular ecological network structure of soil P-cycling functional genes after the conversion of plantations. The composition of P-cycling genes in the topsoil of PM stand was significantly different from that of PM/EF and EF stands (p < 0.05), and total phosphorus (TP) was the main factor causing this difference. After transforming PM plantation into EF plantation, the relative abundances of P solubilization and mineralization genes significantly increased in the topsoil and middle layer with the decrease of soil TP content. The abundances of P-starvation response regulation genes also significantly increased in the subsoil (p < 0.05), which may have been influenced by soil organic carbon (SOC). The dominant genes in all soil layers under three plantations were phoR, glpP, gcd, ppk, and ppx. Transforming PM into EF plantation apparently increased gcd abundance in the topsoil (p < 0.05), with TP and NO3 --N being the main influencing factors. After transforming PM into PM/EF plantations, the molecular ecological network structure of P-cycling genes was more complex; moreover, the key genes in the network were modified with the transformation of PM plantation. Transforming PM into EF plantation mainly improved the phosphate solubilizing potential of microorganisms at topsoil, while transforming PM into PM/EF plantation may have enhanced structural stability of microbial P-cycling genes react to environmental changes.

First distribution records of the quarantine mite pest Oligonychus perditus (Acari: Tetranychidae) in Europe

ABSTRACT The spider mite species Oligonychus perditus Pritchard and Baker 1955 (Acari: Tetranychidae) is native to China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, where it has been reported as a pest of Juniperus spp. and some other conifer plants (Cupressaceae). In Europe the species, has been repeatedly intercepted on imported juniper plants. The EPPO has included O. perditus on the A1 list of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests, mostly because its hosts are of importance to the European nursery trade. In a survey conducted in Serbia between 2020 and 2023 O. perditus was found in 16 sampling locations on plants of the genus Juniperus, from the family Cupressaceae, as well as in order 16 sampling locations on plants of the genera Prunus and, Malus from the family Rosaceae. This species was collected on individual trees in backyards, gardens, and orchards, as well as in ruderal habitats. Populations of O. perditus were small and without economic impact. Introduction of this species into Serbia is probably a consequence of insufficient quarantine measures and relatively loose afforestation rules.

Variable-density thinning designs for harvester-based operations in Northern Europe

ABSTRACT Variable-density thinning (VDT) can be used to start the conversion of young homogeneous conifer plantations to the single-tree selection system. A design for VDT is presented, which is adapted to harvester-based operations in northern Europe without prior tree marking and the low target diameters in the region. Six treatment cells with a size of 10 × 10 m are placed along a 30 m stretch of a strip road with treatments gap (removing all but understory trees), skip (no thinning), and four treatment cells with crop tree-based crown thinning, which removes two dominant competitors of 1–4 crop trees per cell. Skips might in later thinnings be converted into gaps, which is why skips and gaps are placed systematically in the 2 × 3 treatment blocks. Assignment of the crop tree number variants to treatment cells are decided by the harvester operator based on the given stand structure and presence of crop trees meeting all selection criteria. So far, five operations have confirmed the practicality of this design and given some insight into the learning process of harvester operators with these new methods.

Spatial and Temporal Shifts of Endophytic Bacteria in Conifer Seedlings of Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. & Cham.

Endophytes play an important role in plant development, survival, and establishment, but their temporal dynamics in young conifer plants are still largely unknown. In this study, the bacterial community was determined by metabarcoding of the 16S rRNA gene in the rhizoplane, roots, and aerial parts of 1- and 5-month-old seedlings of natural populations of Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. & Cham. In 1-month-old seedlings, Pseudomonas dominated aerial parts (relative abundance 71.6%) and roots (37.9%). However, the roots exhibited significantly higher bacterial species richness than the aerial parts, with the dissimilarity between these plant sections mostly explained by the loss of bacterial amplification sequence variants. After 5 months, Mucilaginibacter dominated in the rhizoplane (9.0%), Streptomyces in the roots (12.2%), and Pseudomonas in the aerial parts (18.1%). The bacterial richness and community structure differed significantly between the plant sections, and these variations were explained mostly by 1-for-1 substitution. The relative abundance of putative metabolic pathways significantly differed between the plant sections at both 1 and 5 months. All the dominant bacterial genera (e.g., Pseudomonas and Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia) have been reported to have plant growth-promoting capacities and/or antagonism against pathogens, but what defines their role for plant development has still to be determined. This investigation improves our understanding of the early plant-bacteria interactions essential for natural regeneration of A. religiosa forest.

Seed dispersal limitation causes negative legacy effect on restoration of grassland plant diversity on ski slopes.

Past forest use often has a long-term negative impact on the recovery of the original plant composition of semi-natural grasslands, which is known as a legacy effect. This study investigates the impact of seed dispersal limitations on the restoration of grassland plant diversity on ski slopes with past forest use, highlighting the negative legacy effect on biodiversity recovery. Focusing on ski areas, our research contrasts the vegetation on ski slopes originally created on semi-natural grasslands such as pasture (pasture slopes) and constructed by clearing secondary forests or conifer plantations (forest slopes). We examined species richness and diversity, considering seed dispersal modes, grassland management history, and seed source proximity. We reveal that the proximity to species-rich grassland sources is pivotal for the restoration of native grassland vegetation. Particularly, wind-dispersed species show significant recovery on slopes with sustained management for more than 70 years and those with neighboring species-rich grasslands, suggesting that both the duration of management and the proximity to seed sources are critical for overcoming the legacy effects of past forest use. Meanwhile, gravity-dispersed species failed to recover their richness and diversity regardless of both the duration of management and the proximity to seed source grasslands, which their diversity recovered where seed sources neighbored. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering seed dispersal limitation and management history in the restoration and conservation of grasslands and their biodiversity, particularly in landscapes experiencing past human intervention.

Adaptive forest management improves stand-level resilience of temperate forests under multiple stressors

Forests are expected to be strongly affected by modifications in climate and disturbance regimes, threatening their ability to sustain the provision of essential services. Promoting drought-tolerant species or functionally diverse stands have recently emerged as management options to cope with global change. Our study aimed at evaluating the impact of contrasting stand-level management scenarios on the resilience of temperate forests in eastern North America and central-western Europe using the individual process-based model HETEROFOR. We simulated the evolution of eight stands over 100 years under a future extreme climate according to four management scenarios (business as usual - BAU; climate change adaptation - CC; functional diversity approach - FD; no management - NM) while facing multiple disturbances, resulting in a total of 160 simulations. We found that FD demonstrated the greatest resilience regarding transpiration and tree biomass, followed by CC and then BAU, while these three scenarios were equivalent concerning the net primary production. These results were however dependent on forest type: increasing functional diversity was a powerful option to increase the resilience of coniferous plantations whereas no clear differences between BAU and adaptive management scenarios were detected in broadleaved and mixed stands. The FD promoted a higher level of tree species diversity than any other scenario, and all scenarios of management were similar regarding the amount of harvested wood. The NM always showed the lowest resilience, demonstrating that forest management could be an important tool to mitigate adverse effects of global change. Our study highlighted that tree-level process-based models are a relevant tool to identify suitable management options for adapting forests to global change provided that model limitations are considered, and that alternative management options, particularly those based on functional diversity, are promising and should be promoted from now on.