Confluence Project Research Articles

“The Last Victims of the Indian War”: Celilo Falls, the Dalles Dam, and Infrastructural Colonization

In 1957, the Dalles Dam was constructed on the Columbia River between Washington and Oregon. When the dam was completed, it inundated Celilo Falls, a Native American fishery and cultural gathering point that had been in use for at least 12,000 years. Prior to dam construction, the federal government and local agencies issued a number of reports stating the necessity of the dam for economic development through hydroelectric power generation, improved shipping navigation, flood control, and expanded irrigation capacity. These reports often sought to determine the financial payout that would be made to the groups with treaty rights to fish at their “usual and accustomed” places, such as Celilo Falls. However, the reports rarely engage with the cultural significance of Celilo Falls or the depth of opposition that people had to the dam. The research discussed here is based on archival government reports alongside the voices of affected tribal members preserved through The Confluence Project and other sources. This article develops the idea that reclamation infrastructure in the U.S. West plays a key role in colonizing efforts from federal to local scales, reflecting the aims of the settler state. Through an analysis of government documents alongside the recollections of Indigenous elders from the mid-Columbia region, this article offers insights into how reclamation infrastructure functions as an aspect of settler colonialism and relies on theorizations of this process from the people most affected by the loss of Celilo Falls.

Global Land Cover Assessment Using Spatial Uniformity Validation Dataset

The Degree Confluence Project (DCP) is a volunteer-based validation dataset that comprises useful information for global land cover map validation. However, there is a problem with using DCP points as validation data for the accuracy assessment of land cover maps. While resolutions of typical global land cover maps are several hundred meters to several kilometers, DCP points can only guarantee an area of several tens of meters that can be confirmed by ground photographs. So, the objective of this study is to create a land cover map validation dataset with added spatial uniformity information using satellite images and DCP points. For this, we devised a new method to semiautomatically guarantee the spatial uniformity of DCP validation data points at any resolution. This method can judge the validation data with guaranteed uniformity with a user’s accuracy of 0.954. Furthermore, we conducted the accuracy assessment for the existing global land cover maps by the DCP validation data with guaranteed spatial uniformity and found that the trends differed by class and region.

Abstract PS7-31: Breast cancer risk assessment combined with a polygenic risk score in the general population for personalized screening

Abstract Background: Polygenic risk scores (PRS) composed of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) known to increase breast cancer risk could improve the performance of existing breast cancer risk prediction tools. However, data is still limited on the feasibility of risk assessment including PRS in the general population of women undergoing routine screening mammography.Patients and Methods: Women, aged 40 or older and not previously identified as high risk, underwent a complete breast cancer assessment, including a questionnaire on personal and family history, mammogram with evaluation of breast density using DenSeeMammo®, and saliva-based testing of 76 SNPs. The PRS was calculated using published per-allele odds ratio corresponding to the SNP associations with breast cancer. We analyzed whether the addition of PRS in eligible women modified risk classification. PRS was not used for risk assessment in non-Caucasian women, but was calculated for comparison between ethnicities.Results: A total of 140 Caucasian women underwent a breast cancer assessment and 130 were eligible for MammoRisk® assessment, with a median age of 51 (38-71). With MammoRisk without PRS: 26 (20%) were found to have moderate risk (5-year risk <1%), 71 (55%) intermediate risk (between 1 and 1.67%), and 33 (25%) high risk (≥1.67%). When PRS was performed and integrated into MammoRisk score, 34 (26%) were found to have moderate risk, 45 (35%) intermediate risk, and 51 (39%) high risk. The use of PRS changed the risk classification in 57 women (44%), 32 (25%) to a higher category and 25 (19%) to a lower category. When PRS was assessed for women of sub-Saharan African origin (n=36) using allele frequencies and odd-ratio observed in Caucasian populations, mean PRS was much higher (mean=1.89, [0.65-5.33], median = 1.65; n=36) than in the group of Caucasian women (mean=0.97 [0.33-3.05], median = 1.02; n=130), which would overestimate the PRS and the risk of developing breast cancer in women of African origin. Conclusions: The use of PRS changed the risk classification in a large subset of women. Results of ongoing large-scale studies will inform on the benefits of personalized risk-based screening compared to annual screening (Wisdom [NCT02620852], MyPEBS [NCT03672331]). As current PRSs have been developed and validated in women of European ancestry, population-specific PRSs need to be developed with data from ongoing large-scale genome-wide association studies for improved risk assessment in women of other ethnicities (Confluence Project, Nigerian Breast Cancer Study). Number of women by risk categoryW/O PRSWith PRSModerate2634Intermediate7145High3351 Number of women with change in risk category when using PRSIntermediate to Moderate16Moderate to Intermediate5High to Intremediate9Moderate to High3Intermediate to high24 Citation Format: Mahasti Saghatchian, Marc Abehsera, Robert Sigal, Emilien Gauthier, Valerie Helin, Laure Villoing-Gaude, Cecile Reyes, Audrey Rapinat, David Gentien, Lisa Golmard, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet. Breast cancer risk assessment combined with a polygenic risk score in the general population for personalized screening [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2020 San Antonio Breast Cancer Virtual Symposium; 2020 Dec 8-11; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(4 Suppl):Abstract nr PS7-31.

Analyzing the Uncertainty of Degree Confluence Project for Validating Global Land-Cover Maps Using Reference Data-Based Classification Schemes

Global land-cover products play an important role in assisting the understanding of climate-related changes and the assessment of progress in the implementation of international initiatives for the mitigation of, and adaption to, climate change. However, concerns over the accuracies of land-cover products remain, due to the issue of validation data uncertainty. The volunteer-based Degree Confluence Project (DCP) was created in 1996, and it has been used to provide useful ground-reference information. This study aims to investigate the impact of DCP-based validation data uncertainty and the thematic issues on map accuracies. We built a reference dataset based on the DCP-interpreted dataset and applied a comparison for three existing global land-cover maps and DCP dataset-based probability maps under different classification schemes. The results of the obtained confusion matrices indicate that the uncertainty, including the number of classes and the confusion in mosaic classes, leads to a decrease in map accuracy. This paper proposes an informative classification scheme that uses a matrix structure of unaggregated land-cover and land-use classes, and has the potential to assist in the land-cover interpretation and validation processes. The findings of this study can potentially serve as a guide to select reference data and choose/define appropriate classification schemes.

Contextual and external factors enabling planning innovations in a regeneration context: the Lyon Confluence project (France)

ABSTRACT This paper analyses the contextual and external factors enabling the emergence and implementation of planning innovations in a regeneration context. It draws upon sustainability transitions theory to define the concept of planning innovation. The paper is based on semi-structured interviews with urban stakeholders involved in the redevelopment process of the Lyon Confluence regeneration project. The case study of Lyon Confluence is the largest regeneration scheme in Europe and features several planning innovations related to environmental sustainability. The main finding is that planning innovations rely on both contextual and external factors. While contextual factors were essential in generating planning innovations in the case study; external factors relating to the development of actors’ networks operating at different scales enabled new financing opportunities for innovation.

The Role of Roughness and Stability on the Momentum Flux in the Marine Atmospheric Surface Layer: A Study on the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean

AbstractFor the first time, in situ turbulence measurements collected in the vicinity of the Brazil‐Malvinas Confluence are used to determine the influence of the ocean waves and atmospheric stability on the Marine Atmospheric Surface Layer. From the analysis of 187 high‐frequency sampled segments of temperature and wind velocity, carefully selected from three ship campaigns of the Air‐Sea Interaction at Brazil‐Malvinas Confluence project, we found a particular behavior of the drag coefficient, with a negative trend for a calm wind speed up to 10 m/s when the significant wave height was lower than 2.5 m, and a continuous decrease of the drag coefficient with increasing wind speed for significant wave height higher than 2.5 m. The results suggest that waves act as roughness elements during high wave conditions, inducing a zero‐plane displacement in the order of 0.1 to 1 m as an indication for a wave‐induced roughness layer. In addition, the analysis of the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget indicates the occurrence of upward TKE transport mainly during stable conditions, while the general patterns of transport and dissipation of TKE are similar to observations taken over land surfaces.

Assessing the socio-economic impacts of green/blue space, urban residential and road infrastructure projects in the Confluence (Lyon): a hedonic pricing simulation approach

Urban green/blue spaces are put under pressure as urban areas grow, develop and evolve. It is increasingly recognized, however, that green/blue spaces provide important ecosystem services, stimulate higher real estate prices and prevent flooding problems. This paper aims to assess and compare the socio-economic impacts of potential green/blue space, urban residential and road infrastructure development scenarios in the Lyon Confluence project area (France), using the Sustainable Urbanizing Landscape Development (SULD) hedonic pricing simulation model. Results show four major tendencies regarding the value-added of green/blue spaces in urban landscapes: (1) cities become more compact; (2) population densities increase; (3) real estate values rise; and (4) demographic distribution patterns change. The magnitude of these impacts depends, however, on the quality and size of the intervention, the social classes attracted to the intervention area and on the location of the intervention relative to existing residential areas, urban centres, road infrastructure and environmental amenities.

New global forest/non-forest maps from ALOS PALSAR data (2007–2010)

Four global mosaics of Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Arrayed L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) HH and HV polarization data were generated at 25m spatial resolution using data acquired annually from 2007 to 2010. Variability in L-band HH and HV gamma-naught (γ0) for forests was observed between regions, with this attributed to differences in forest structure and vegetation/surface moisture conditions. Region-specific backscatter thresholds were therefore applied to produce from each annual mosaic, a global map of forest and non-forest cover from which maps of forest losses and gain were generated. The overall agreement with forest/non-forest assessments using the Degree Confluence Project, the Forest Resource Assessment and Google Earth images was 85%, 91% and 95% respectively. Using 2007 as a baseline, decreases of 0.040 and 0.028dB (with a 0.006dB 99% confidence level) were observed in the HH and HV γ0 respectively over the same areas suggesting a decrease in forest area and/or increased smoothing of the global surface at the L-band radar observation over the four-year period. The maps provide a new global resource for documenting the changing extent of forests and offer opportunities for quantifying historical and future dynamics through comparison with historical (1992–1998) Japanese Earth Resources Satellite (JERS-1) SAR and the forthcoming (from 2014) ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 data. Four year PALSAR mosaics and the forest/non-forest data, which were generated and analyzed in this paper, are opened to the public for free downloading albeit with coarser resolutions (WWW1). Future distribution of the higher (original) resolution datasets from PALSAR as well as the ALOS-2/PALSAR-2 is planned.

Confluence Project Artists Commissions: Shadows and Undercurrents

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Confluence Project Artists Commissions: Petrichor

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Reflections on the Confluence Project : Assimilation, Sustainability, and the Perils of a Shared Heritage

Reflections on the Confluence ProjectAssimilation, Sustainability, and the Perils of a Shared Heritage Jon Daehnke (bio) The recent bicentennial of Lewis and Clark’s “Corps of Discovery” created increased interest in commemorations of this event along the entire course of the expedition’s travels. In advance of the bicentennial, a number of states established Lewis and Clark commemorative commissions, museums at both national and local levels planned exhibits on the Corps of Discovery, and leaders of local communities along the trail deliberated on the best ways to use the bicentennial to attract tourist dollars to their communities. A group of Lewis and Clark reenactors—including some descendants of William Clark—even set out to retrace the entire course of the journey during the bicentennial years.1 The desire to commemorate the bicentennial was certainly felt along the Columbia River, along which the Corps of Discovery traveled in 1805 and 1806. A centerpiece of Columbia River commemorations of Lewis and Clark—and the one that might have the most long-lasting presence—is the Confluence Project, a series of seven permanent and public art installations located at specific spots on the banks of the river. The Confluence Project art installations were principally designed by artist Maya Lin and further developed and constructed with the assistance of a number of architects and partners.2 The Confluence Project was initiated in 2000 as a collaborative effort between various civic groups from Oregon and Washington, a number of Pacific Northwest Native American tribes, artists, and landscape designers. The stated [End Page 503] goal of the Confluence Project is to “reclaim, transform, and reimagine,” through the creation of public artworks, seven places along a roughly three-hundred-mile stretch from the mouth of the Columbia River to near the border of Washington and Idaho.3 All seven of the chosen sites were stopping points for the Corps of Discovery. Ultimately, the Confluence Project was “designed to rethink what a commemoration of the Lewis and Clark Northwest Expedition could be,” especially by providing greater space for Native American voices and framing the history of the Corps of Discovery as part of a larger shared heritage.4 Explicit in the Confluence Project, and promoted as part of a shared heritage, is a message of environmentalism and sustainability. The seven sites that were chosen for the Confluence Project were chosen in part because they were points of intersection between environment, culture, and history, places of “encounter between the natural world and the built environment, the past and the present, for people of all backgrounds.”5 The art installations located at each site were designed by Maya Lin to interpret the area’s ecology and history and to integrate environmental concerns and history with an awareness of and sensitivity to the tremendous changes the journey of Lewis and Clark effected on Native Americans and their homelands. The Confluence Project has a strong, positive emphasis on a future where we begin to preserve and sustain our natural and cultural resources.6 Messages of shared heritage, especially when placed in the context of long-term environmental sustainability, seem reasonable and, in fact, even relatively mainstream. My argument in this article, however, is that these messages, while on the surface seemingly agreeable, are not entirely benign. I suggest that the messages of shared heritage and sustainability found in the Confluence Project, rather than transforming and reimagining the story of Lewis and Clark, serve to further assimilate the Native American story as one more component of the American master narrative, create a false equation of Indigenous and settler experiences on the landscape, distance and erase the tragedies of colonialism, and perpetuate stereotypes of pristine nonanthropogenic landscapes. In effect, the Confluence Project hides what is a very real and specific history of colonial violence and dispossession and turns it instead into an ahistorical story of shared environmental concerns. [End Page 504] My arguments in this article are drawn from multiple visits to two of the Confluence Project artworks; the Vancouver Land Bridge in Vancouver, Washington, which connects the Columbia River with historic Fort Vancouver, and the bird blind at the Sandy River Delta east of Portland, Oregon, where the Sandy River flows into...

Guest Editor’s Introduction

Guest Editor’s Introduction Alison Fields (bio) This special issue of American Indian Quarterly examines indigenous cultural tourism in both theoretical and practical contexts. The articles critically address the practices of spectatorship and participation at work in world’s fairs, Wild West shows, photography, cinema, museums, cultural performances, commemorative events, and public sculpture. By addressing this diverse subject matter from a range of disciplinary perspectives, the contributors in this issue add to current scholarly conversations about self- representation and identity, national and transnational negotiations, and personal and cultural memory. To open the issue, Melissa Rinehart examines an act of resistance at the World’s Columbian Exposition. When Native performers showed up to the exposition with short hair, organizers felt that they appeared “too civilized” and insisted that they wear wigs. When spectators openly discussed ugly stereotypes in front of Antonio Apache, the young Native American organizer of the Indian pageant, he threw out the wigs in frustration. The tourists, who thought the wigs were scalps, fled. Rinehart writes, “This resistance ultimately spoke to their resiliency as an unconquered people directly countering the progressive theme of the Exposition.” Next, I address trajectory of the Miller Brothers’ 101 Ranch Real Wild West show. Native participants in the Real Wild West show performed on national and international circuits and subcontracted with organizations such as Germany’s Sarrasani Circus and southern California’s early film studios. Through an analysis of these sites, I suggest that the transition from live to filmed performances in the early twentieth century was a fluid process, leading to new viewing positions for both performers and spectators. [End Page vii] Moving into the present, Michelle Jacob draws on interviews with members of the Wapato Indian Club, a dance troupe based on the Yakama Reservation in Wapato, Washington, to “articulate the lessons about identity, representation, and resistance contained in the narratives about participation in [the club].” By revitalizing cultural traditions of dancing and intergenerational exchange, Jacob argues that “the Wapato Indian Club represents a community-based educational effort that seeks to heal the soul wounds of colonialism.” Jennifer Adese questions “the nature of Indigenous involvement” in the 2010 Vancouver Olympics Opening Ceremony and the broader implications of such participation for conceptions of Canadian nationhood. Jon Daehnke addresses the Confluence Project, a series of contemporary art installations along the Columbia River primarily designed by Maya Lin, created for the Bicentennial of Lewis and Clark’s Corps of Discovery. Envisioned as a collaboration between civic groups, Pacific Northwest Native American tribes, and architects and landscape designers, the project emphasized environmentalism and the Corps of Discovery as “part of a larger shared heritage.” However, Daehnke argues: “Rather than transforming and reimagining the story of Lewis and Clark, I suggest that the messages of shared heritage and sustainability found in the Confluence Project serve to further assimilate the Native American story as one more component of the American master narrative, create a false equation of indigenous and settler experiences on the landscape, distance and erase the tragedies of colonialism, and perpetuate stereotypes of pristine nonanthropogenic landscapes.” Doctoral student Jeff Fortney’s essay further examines commemoration and remembrance, considering how a statue of a Civil War soldier on Main Street in Norman, Oklahoma, reflects an often-silenced historical narrative in former Indian Territory. In closing, Doreen Martinez calls for a theoretical and methodological (re)mapping of “previous expectations and imposed understandings of Indigenous cultures” to “more fully illuminate the landscape, terrain, and meaning of lives” in a global society. [End Page viii] Alison Fields Alison Fields is the Mary Lou Milner Carver Professor of Art of the American West, an assistant professor of art history and affiliated faculty in film and media studies at the University of Oklahoma. She also serves as the managing editor of American Indian Quarterly. Copyright © 2013 University of Nebraska Press

Reflections on the <em>Confluence Project</em>: Assimilation, Sustainability, and the Perils of a Shared Heritage

Reflections on the <em>Confluence Project</em>: Assimilation, Sustainability, and the Perils of a Shared Heritage

Development of a New Ground Truth Database for Global Urban Area Mapping from a Gazetteer

We developed a ground truth database for urban areas from the Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project (GRUMP) Settlement Points gazetteer of populated place names by visually interpreting 3,734 urban points on satellite images, thus acquiring 2,144 urban and 1,388 non-urban data points. Our database contained many more urban data points than the existing databases, which had only 0 to 11 ground truth data points. We used our database in combination with the Degree Confluence Project database to assess the accuracy of eight satellite-derived urban area maps, among which the MODIS Terra + Aqua Land Cover Type Yearly L3 Global 500 m SIN Grid was the most accurate (84% overall accuracy; kappa coefficient, 0.63). Moreover, the most recently published maps were not necessarily the most accurate. We compared the accuracy assessment results of our database with those of another database and found that ours detected more errors of commission but included less chance agreement.

Creation of New Global Land Cover Map with Map Integration

We present here a new approach to the development of a global land cover map. We combined three existing global land cover maps (MOD12, GLC2000, and UMD) based on the principle that the majority view prevails and validated the resulting map by using information collected as part of the Degree Confluence Project (DCP). We used field survey information gathered by DCP volunteers from 4211 worldwide locations to validate the new land cover map, as well as the three existing land cover maps that were combined to create it. Agreement between the DCP-derived information and the land cover maps was 61.3% for our new land cover map, 60.3% for MOD12, 58.9% for GLC2000, and 55.2% for UMD. Although some of the improvements we achieved were not statistically significant, this project has shown that an improved land cover map can be developed and well-validated globally using our method.

Global irrigated area map (GIAM), derived from remote sensing, for the end of the last millennium

A Global Irrigated Area Map (GIAM) has been produced for the end of the last millennium using multiple satellite sensor, secondary, Google Earth and groundtruth data. The data included: (a) Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) 3‐band and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 10 km monthly time‐series for 1997–1999, (b) Système pour l'Observation de la Terre Vegetation (SPOT VGT) NDVI 1 km monthly time series for 1999, (c) East Anglia University Climate Research Unit (CRU) rainfall 50 km monthly time series for 1961–2000, (d) Global 30 Arc‐Second Elevation Data Set (GTOPO30) 1 km digital elevation data of the World, (e) Japanese Earth Resources Satellite‐1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (JERS‐1 SAR) data for the rain forests during two seasons in 1996 and (f) University of Maryland Global Tree Cover 1 km data for 1992–1993. A single mega‐file data‐cube (MFDC) of the World with 159 layers, akin to hyperspectral data, was composed by re‐sampling different data types into a common 1 km resolution. The MFDC was segmented based on elevation, temperature and precipitation zones. Classification was performed on the segments. Quantitative spectral matching techniques (SMTs) used in hyperspectral data analysis were adopted to group class spectra derived from unsupervised classification and match them with ideal or target spectra. A rigorous class identification and labelling process involved the use of: (a) space–time spiral curve (ST‐SC) plots, (b) brightness–greenness–wetness (BGW) plots, (c) time series NDVI plots, (d) Google Earth very‐high‐resolution imagery (VHRI) ‘zoom‐in views’ in over 11 000 locations, (e) groundtruth data broadly sourced from the degree confluence project (3 864 sample locations) and from the GIAM project (1 790 sample locations), (f) high‐resolution Landsat‐ETM+ Geocover 150 m mosaic of the World and (g) secondary data (e.g. national and global land use and land cover data). Mixed classes were resolved based on decision tree algorithms and spatial modelling, and when that did not work, the problem class was used to mask and re‐classify the MDFC, and the class identification and labelling protocol repeated. The sub‐pixel area (SPA) calculations were performed by multiplying full‐pixel areas (FPAs) with irrigated area fractions (IAFs) for every class. A 28 class GIAM was produced and the area statistics reported as: (a) annualized irrigated areas (AIAs), which consider intensity of irrigation (i.e. sum of irrigated areas from different seasons in a year plus continuous year‐round irrigation or gross irrigated areas), and (b) total area available for irrigation (TAAI), which does not consider intensity of irrigation (i.e. irrigated areas at any given point of time plus the areas left fallow but ‘equipped for irrigation’ at the same point of time or net irrigated areas). The AIA of the World at the end of the last millennium was 467 million hectares (Mha), which is sum of the non‐overlapping areas of: (a) 252 Mha from season one, (b) 174 Mha from season two and (c) 41 Mha from continuous year‐round crops. The TAAI at the end of the last millennium was 399 Mha. The distribution of irrigated areas is highly skewed amongst continents and countries. Asia accounts for 79% (370 Mha) of all AIAs, followed by Europe (7%) and North America (7%). Three continents, South America (4%), Africa (2%) and Australia (1%), have a very low proportion of the global irrigation. The GIAM had an accuracy of 79–91%, with errors of omission not exceeding 21%, and the errors of commission not exceeding 23%. The GIAM statistics were also compared with: (a) the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and University of Frankfurt (UF) derived irrigated areas and (b) national census data for India. The relationships and causes of differences are discussed in detail. The GIAM products are made available through a web portal (http://www.iwmigiam.org).

Validating land cover maps with Degree Confluence Project information

We propose the use of Degree Confluence Project (hereby DCP) information as a new method for validating land cover maps. The DCP is a volunteer‐based project that aims to collect onsite information from all the degree confluences (intersections of integer level latitude and longitude gridlines) in the world. We assessed the reliability and effectiveness of DCP‐derived data in validating land cover maps. As a result, we obtained land cover validation information superior to the validation information obtained by visual interpretation of Landsat images. By using DCP‐derived validation information (at 749 confluences), we evaluated existing land cover maps for Eurasia (GLC2000, MOD12, UMD, and GLCC). The agreements between the DCP‐derived validation information and the land cover maps were 55% for GLC2000, 58% for MOD12, 54% for UMD, and 50% for GLCC. Although MOD12 and GLC2000 had somewhat better agreements than the other maps, there is no significant difference between the two.

Indians and Emigrants: Encounters on the Overland Trail by Michael L. Tate

WAITING FORLEWIS AND CLARK: THE BICENTENNIAL AND THE CHANGING WEST byDavid Sarasohn Oregon Historical Society Press, Portland, 2005. Photo graphs, bibliography, index. 190 pages. $16.95 paper. As the seemingly interminableLewis and Clark Bicentennial approaches its end, it is appro priate to sum up its achievements, its legacy. David Sarasohn has done so in an enlighten ing and informative book. The Bicentennial has invigorated community spirit in towns and states all along the trail. With Stephen Ambrose's Undaunted Courage (1996) and Ken Burns's PBS series (1997), theBicentennial cre ated awelcome historical consciousness. Gaps in the literaturehave been filled, especially by new biographies of William Clark. There is a new national park, new stamps and coins, and the expansive Confluence Project ? a series of seven historic sites featuring sculpture and landscape architecture byMaya Lin.We have much tohelp us remember Lewis and Clark. Sarasohn elaborates on three departures. First, Indian people have become involved in the Bicentennial. Many tribes no longer livewhere Lewis and Clark found them ? it is tough to get excitedwhen you are stuck in Oklahoma. Some important peoples are not federally recognized, such as the Lemhi Shoshone, Sacagawea s tribe.And most Na tiveAmericans are not celebrating Lewis and Clark. They are not even commemorating the Bicentennial. At best, they are merely observ ing it.Still, they see itas a chance to tell their own story. Native American contributions to the Lewis and Clark saga are important new perspectives. Second, Sarasohn stresses heritage tour ism, the fastest-growing segment of the travel and recreation industry. The Bicentennial has drawn millions to "signature events" and prominent siteson the trail.Such celebrations are somehow un-American without a com mercial angle. Third, the Bicentennial has boosted envi ronmental and conservation effortsalong the trail. IfLewis and Clark Expedition sites are drawing visitors, then they areworth saving. Dams on theSnake River,however,will not be breached this time around. None ofuswill be here fortheTricentennial, but Sarasohn's excellent coverage reminds us ofwhat happened this time. Harry W. Fritz University of Montana, Missoula INDIANS AND EMIGRANTS: ENCOUNTERS ON THEOVERLANDTRAIL by Michael L.T?te University ofOklahoma Press, Norman, 2006. Illustrations, photographs, maps, notes, bibliography, index. 352 pages. $29.95 cloth. Indians and Emigrants is a comprehensive study of the complex history of relations between emigrants and American Indians on the central route of the overland trails to Oregon, California, and the Salt Lake Valley from 1840 to 1870.Along the overland trails, Indians and emigrantsviewed each other from radically differentperspectives. In contrast to the stereotypical images of "savage" Indians continually attackingwagon trainsand fearful, sometimes vengeful, emigrants portrayed by journalists, novelists, artists, and movie-mak ers,Michael T?te masterfully shows that this popular focus on conflict and violence "fails to account for the equally compelling reality of cooperation, aid, and mutual benefit that dominated Indian-white relations" (p. 231). In topical chapters, he examines the evolving nature of intercultural relations between two fundamentally differentpeoples. Through the firsthalf of the 1850s, Indian-white interper sonal relations generally demonstrated coop eration and friendship.Even though relations were transientand superficial,individuals often formed short-termfriendlyassociations based 622 OHQ vol. 107, no. 4 on curiosity,hospitality,and social interaction. T?te describes how changing circumstances caused heightened tensions and increased conflict in the lateryears of theperiod. T?te explores the confusion, misinforma tion,and preconceived ideas about Indians that emigrants gained fromguidebooks, literature, art,and familystoriesbefore theydeparted and thatwere reinforcedby rumors circulating in jumping-off towns. At the outset theywere conditioned to expect violence fromwestern Indians,which theyoften precipitated during the journey by theirown culturalmisconcep tions. T?te discusses the emigrants' first impres sions of the Indians they encountered as they began travelingwestward from theMissouri River.Between 1841and 1854,theregionknown as "Indian Country" was dotted with small Indian villages; but after Kansas andNebraska were organized into territories in 1854, farms, ranches, and towns changed the landscape dra matically.Whether in the earlyor laterperiods, overlanders' preconceptions were tested when they met theirfirstIndians. Chapters on trade and theways Indians assisted emigrants for compensation delve 2006 Oregon Book Award Winner Sarah Winnemucca Award forCreative Nonfiction When the River RanWild! Indian Traditionson the Mid-Columbia and the Warm Springs...

緯度経度整数地点の土地被覆情報を用いた土地被覆図の検証手法

We propose a new validation method for land cover maps. Land cover maps are used in the numerical models that estimate ecosystem behavior (such as carbon budget), water cycle (such as river runoff), and climate at the global scale. Because of this wide range of applications, accurate validation of these maps is of crucial importance. Currently, each of the existing land cover maps has been validated with its own validation method, but there is no validation method for land cover maps by using ground-truth with fairly uniform and accurate worldwide distribution. We propose a validation method that can address this shortcoming. Our method employs information gathered by “the Degree Confluence Project (DCP), ” a voluntary-based project that collects on site data from each of the degree confluence points (DCPoints) in the world. DCPoints are located at the intersections of integer level latitude and longitude grid lines. Volunteers with the project visit the DCPoints and collect data in the form of GPS readings, pictures and descriptions of the landscape. We propose to validate land cover maps using this DCP data. We choose Thailand as our test area and reclassified 30 DCPoints into the six landscape categories (classes) defined under the Kyoto Protocol's Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) guidelines. These DCP derived classifications were then compared to classifications derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper images. Through this method we were able to obtain validation information superior to that of visual interpretation. We also converted land cover classifications from Global Land Cover 2000 (GLC2000), MODIS Land Cover Dataset (MDO12), Global Land Cover Characterization Version 2.0 (USGS) and AARS Global 4-minute Land Cover Data Set (AARS) into the LULUCF framework. These four land cover maps were then compared in the same way with the DCP data to evaluate their agreements. Agreement of the GLC2000 is 76%, MOD12 is 70%, USGS is 73.3%, and AARS is 33.3%.