Cone Penetrometry Research Articles

Impact of low-trans fat compositions on the quality of conventional and fat-reduced puff pastry.

Four vegetable fat blends (FBs) with low trans-fatty acid (TFA≤0.6%) content with various ratios of palm stearin (PS) and rapeseed oil (RO) were characterised and examined for their application in puff pastry production. The amount of PS decreased from FB1 to FB4 and simultaneously the RO content increased. A range of analytical methods were used to characterise the FBs, including solid fat content (SFC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), cone penetrometry and rheological measurements. The internal and external structural quality parameters of baked puff pastry were investigated using texture analyser equipped with an Extended Craft Knife (ECK), VolScan and C-Cell image system. Puff pastry containing FB1 and FB2 achieved excellent baking results for full fat and fat-reduced puff pastry; hence these FBs contained adequate shortening properties. A fat reduction by 40% using FB2 and a reduction of saturated fatty acids (SAFA) by 49%, compared to the control, did not lead to adverse effects in lift and specific volume. The higher amount of RO and the lower SAFA content compared to FB1 coupled with the satisfying baking results makes FB2 the fat of choice in this study. FB3 and FB4 were found to be unsuitable for puff pastry production because of their melting behaviour.

Consistency Cone Penetrometry for Food Products

Consistency Cone Penetrometry for Food Products

Role of Fibre Morphology in Some Quality Features of Fibre-Enriched Biscuits

The effect of replacing 5 and 10% of the flour in a biscuit formulation with two wheat fibres (of different lengths) and apple fibre (differences in morphology and proportion of soluble fraction) was studied. All the fibres decreased the flour pasting properties. The longer wheat fibre produced the greatest increase in the G′ and G″ viscoelastic moduli of the dough compared to the control (no fibres added). The biscuit texture properties were measured using the 3-point break test and cone penetrometry: wheat fibre biscuits were more resistant to breaking while apple fibre produced a crumbly biscuit. Sensory analysis by a trained panel showed minor changes in the apple fibre biscuits compared to the control and greater hardness in the wheat fibre biscuits.

Wellbore-Wall Compression Effects on Monitored Groundwater Levels and Qualities

The effects of wellbore-wall compression from rough excavation on monitored groundwater levels and qualities under natural hydraulic gradient conditions were investigated in a shallow clayey Andisol aquifer. Nine wellbores reaching the underlying aquitard at about 2.6-m depth were constructed by dynamic cone penetrometry to mimic rough wellbore construction. Five of these were constructed under wet aquifer soil conditions and the remaining four under dry conditions. A 15-month period monitoring showed that the groundwater levels in the wellbores constructed under wet conditions responded significantly in retard of, and in narrower ranges than, those constructed under dry conditions. The wellbore-wall hydraulic conductivities at the former wellbores were calculated to be more than one to two orders of magnitude lower than those at the latter ones. Furthermore, remarkable nitrate removal attributable to the occurrence of a heterotrophic denitrification was observed in one of the former wellbores. In contrast, the groundwater levels and qualities in the latter wellbores appeared to be generally similar to those monitored in the conventional soil coring and augering-derived wellbores. Our results suggest that the wellbore-wall compression induced by rough excavation under wet and soft aquifer soil conditions leads to a substantial decrease in the wellbore-wall hydraulic conductivity, which in turn can lead to unreliable groundwater levels and qualities. This problem can occur in clayey Andisols whenever the aquifer soil is wet; however, the problem can be largely avoided by constructing the wellbore under dry and hard aquifer soil conditions.

The use of reference models from a priori data to guide 2D inversion of electrical resistivity tomography data

ABSTRACTClay‐rich till plains cover much of the UK. Such sites are attractive locations for landfills, since clay aquitards lower the risk of landfill leachate entering groundwater. However, such tills often contain sand and gravel bodies that can act as leachate flow routes. Such bodies may not be detected by conventional site investigation techniques such as drilling boreholes and trial pitting. A method of guided inversion, where a priori data are used to construct structural reference models for use in inverting electrical resistivity tomography data, was proposed as a tool to improve the detection of sand and gravel bodies within clay‐rich till sequences.Following a successful 2D guided inversion synthetic modelling study, a field study was undertaken. Wenner 2D electrical resistivity tomography lines, resistivity cone penetrometry bores and electromagnetic induction ground resistivity data were collected over a site on the East Yorkshire coast, England, where sand and gravel lenses were known to exist from cliff exposures. A number of equally valid geoelectrical models were constructed using the electromagnetic and resistivity cone data. These were used as structural reference models in the inversion of the resistivity tomography data. Blind inversion using an homogenous reference model was also carried out for comparison.It was shown for the first time that the best solution model produced by 2D inversion of one data set with a range of structural reference models could be determined by using the l2 model misfit between the solution models and associated reference models (reference misfit) as a proxy for the l2 misfit between the solution models and the synthetic model or ‘best‐guess’ geoelectrical model (true misfit). The 2D methodology developed here is applicable in clay‐rich till plains containing sand and gravel bodies throughout the UK.

Field scale determination of the aquifer–aquitard boundary in Joso Clay by cone penetrometry

A few number of soil profile studies have pointed out that Joso Clay, a thick clayey layer underlying the shallow groundwater bodies in the diluvial uplands of southern Ibaraki and northern Chiba prefectures, Japan, has a structured surface layer in which the hydraulic conductivity is one to several orders of magnitude higher than that of the underlying massive layer. The spatial distribution of the boundary between the structured and massive clay layers should be determined as the aquifer–aquitard boundary; however, such attempts have not been made. In the present study, dynamic cone penetrometry was used to determine the spatial distribution of the aquifer–aquitard boundary in Joso Clay at a field scale in Tsukuba–Inashiki Upland, Ibaraki prefecture, Japan. The dynamic cone penetration index N d5, every 5-cm depth average of the number of hammer strikes required for the tip cone to enter into the soil per unit of depth, was determined to a depth of 3.1–3.7 m at 54 rectangular grid points with approximately 5-m spacing in a field with an area of 943 m2. The field-scale N d5 profile data suggested that prismatic structures with N d5 values of up to 50–60 m−1 are widely distributed in the uppermost layer of the Joso Clay. Accordingly, a criterion of N d5 > 60 m−1 was proposed for determining the underlying aquitard in this field. The depth to the aquifer–aquitard boundary was determined to be 2.58 m on average, ranging from 2.40 to 2.89 m. Furthermore, annual water table monitoring at each grid point showed that the thickness of the structured layer, varying from 0.30 to 0.75 m, occupied 61–100% of the annual average shallow aquifer thickness, which varied from 0.40 to 0.87 m. These results demonstrate the significance of the uppermost structured layer in the Joso Clay as the major part of the shallow aquifer at a field scale in this upland.

Relative Hardness of Fat Crystal Networks Using Force Displacement Curves

The use of automated penetration measurements as a means to evaluate the hardness of lipid crystal networks is ubiquitous in the literature, but lacks consistency in the methodology applied, or the analysis used. This study provides a framework for the standardization of methodology and parameters used to measure hardness. A relatively large variety of lipid samples of varying hardness were tested with a texture analyzer. Penetration depth, speed, and probe type were independently varied to determine the optimum procedure with which to obtain force-displacement curves, and a variety of analysis techniques were considered to interpret these curves. Optimal curves were obtained at a penetration speed of 0.5 mm/s, using a constant penetration depth of 1.5 mm, and either a needle or ball probe depending upon the hardness or nature of the sample. The maximum force parameter was found to be the most unambiguous measure of hardness. The results from maximum force show close correlation with that from cone penetrometry—a method widely used in industry.

Diminishing Marginal Utility of Cooling Rate Increase on the Crystallization Behavior and Physical Properties of a Lipid Sample

AbstractIt is well established that variation of the rate of cooling (r) of a lipid sample is an effective tool to influence the crystallization process and effect changes in network structure and physical functionality. However, the extent of the physical changes does not always justify the extent to which the cooling rate must be altered. It is therefore important to understand the rates at which marginal changes in physical functionality begin to diminish, and to understand the mechanisms which introduce such limitations. A commercially available cocoa butter alternative, Temcote (Bunge Oils, Bradley, IL), was crystallized under cooling rates varying from 0.1 to 20 °C min−1. The growth mode and polymorphism of each sample was studied using DSC and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The hardness of the sample was monitored using cone penetrometry and its solid fat content (SFC) evolution was monitored using a temperature controlled pulse‐NMR. The data demonstrates that the melting profile of the sample could be greatly manipulated over a relatively narrow range of cooling rates. Large increases in cooling rate increase the final SFC of the sample by approximately 6%. Doubling the cooling rate increases the hardness of the sample 50%. Variation of the cooling rate as a tool to modify physical functionality of the network was found to be effective only for cooling rates lower than 5 °C min−1.

Plate Sinkage versus Confined Compression Tests for In Situ Soil Compressibility Studies

The objective of this study was to evaluate two methods [plate sinkage test (PST) and confined compression test (CCT)] of predicting the compressibility of the in situ soil. The study also considered the effects of internal stresses on soil pre-compaction stress σpc. The experiment was conducted on a Typic Haplargids soil. A quasi-static loading apparatus was used to run the in situ PST and CCT. The compressibility tests were performed at different water contents after the second irrigation on the ploughed topsoil and subsoil. The results showed that the values of σpc measured in the PST were higher than the ones measured in the CCT. This might be related to distortion of stress–strain curve measured in the CCT due to sampling disturbance and the boundary conditions. A strong relationship between σpc and water content was observed for the topsoil. The compressibility of subsoil was lower than that of topsoil owing to fine texture, higher bulk density and more stable structure of the subsoil. The pre-compaction stress and the effective stress generated by soil matric suction had linear relationship for the topsoil. The σpc of the topsoil approaches very high values (i.e. 500 kPa) upon drying. This implies the dominant effect of effective stress generated by matric suction on the bearing capacity of the topsoil. However, σpc of subsoil slightly changed with the effective stress. A significant relationship was found between σpc and cone penetration resistance (Cp) of the topsoil. Slope of the fitted line for the PST was two times of that for the CCT. The relationship between σpc and Cp was not significant for subsoil. The PST was able to determine σpc better than the CCT. Internal stresses due to matric suction are important with respect to compaction of the unstable soils in central Iran. Cone penetrometry could be used as a quick method for prediction of pre-compaction stress of the topsoil.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF VANASPATI MARKETED IN INDIA

ABSTRACT Nine different brands of commercial vanaspati were analyzed for their various physicochemical characteristics. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra showed the characteristic peak at 966/cm corresponding to trans compounds for all the samples examined. The fatty acid composition showed that the trans fatty acid (elaidic acid) content ranged from 5.9 to 30.0%. The other fatty acids were palmitic acid followed by oleic, stearic and linoleic acids. The solid fat content determined by differential scanning calorimetry showed that the samples contained 54–67% solids at 20C, 42–59% at 25C and 0.2–19% at 40C. The slip melting point varied between 39 and 40C. The textural evaluation was carried out using cone penetrometry at 3, 20 and 25C. The fat having the highest trans content showed the highest hardness index. However, there was no direct correlation between the fatty acid composition and consistency.

Field study of TCE diffusion profiles below DNAPL to assess aquitard integrity

An area where a free-product accumulation of trichloroethylene (TCE) dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) occurs at the bottom of a 10-m-thick surficial sand aquifer was studied to determine the integrity of the underlying, 20-m-thick, clayey silt aquitard formed of glaciolacustrine sediment. TCE concentration-versus-depth profiles determined from aquitard cores collected at five locations indicated penetration of detectable TCE 2.5 to 3.0 m into the aquitard. Two of the profiles show persistent DNAPL at the aquitard interface, while two others indicate that DNAPL, present initially, was completely dissolved away producing concentration declines at the aquitard interface. The fifth profile suggests shallow DNAPL penetration (<0.5 m) into the aquitard, however, this penetration, which was likely caused by cross-contamination during core collection or cone penetrometry (CPT) of the aquitard interface, did not increase the maximum depth of TCE penetration. Combining the field profiles with one-dimensional model simulations, downward migration of the aqueous TCE front, defined as the EPA MCL of 5 μg/l, which was below the analytical detection limit, was projected to a distance between 4 and 5 m below the top of the aquitard. Using a single set of estimated aquitard parameter values, simulations of aqueous TCE migration into the aquitard provided a good fit to four of the field profiles with a migration time of 35 to 45 years, consistent with the history of TCE use at the site. These simulations indicate aqueous TCE migration is diffusion-dominated with only small advective influence by the downward groundwater velocity of 2 to 3 cm/year or less in the aquitard due to pumping of the underlying aquifer to supply water to the facility in the past 50 years. The applicability of the parameter values was confirmed by in situ diffusion experiments of 1-year duration, in which stainless steel cylinders containing DNAPL were inserted into the aquitard. The diffusion-dominated nature of the profiles indicates that the aquitard provides long-term protection of the underlying aquifer from contamination from this DNAPL zone. Simulations of long-term migration of the TCE solute front indicate breakthrough to the lower aquifer at 1200 years for the no advection scenario and at 500 years if the strong downward hydraulic gradient persists. However, even after breakthrough, the mass flux through the aquitard to the underlying aquifer remains relatively low, and when considered in terms of potential impacts to pumping wells, concentrations are not expected to increase significantly above present-day MCLs. The use of contaminant profiles of different time and distance scales, in addition to hydraulic data, dramatically improves the ability to assess aquitard integrity, and provides improved transport parameter values for estimating contaminant arrival times and fluxes. The apparent lack of deep preferential pathways for TCE migration, such as open fractures, is probably due to the softness of the silty aquitard deposit and minimal physical or chemical weathering of the aquitard.

Rheological Properties of Milkfat and Butter

ABSTRACT: Butter and milkfat are examples of plastic materials for which texture is a critical factor in determining functionality and consumer acceptance. The methods by which butter rheology is characterized are discussed, including large deformation techniques such as cone penetrometry, compression, sectility and extrusion, and methods which involve testing at low levels of strain. Correlations between instrumental tests and sensory‐evaluated properties of the fats are explored. Rheological properties, including hardness, spreadability, setting, work softening, and thixotropy are described, and the models which have been proposed to characterize these behaviors are reviewed. Techniques which have been devised recently to quantitatively relate structural measurements to rheology are also examined. Modification of butter's rheological properties can be accomplished through alterations in composition or in the manufacturing process. These approaches are discussed and evaluated.

Elastic Modulus as an Indicator of Macroscopic Hardness of Fat Crystal Networks

The theory of elasticity of materials is presented, and related to the elasticity displayed by fat crystal networks. A review of the theory and methods used to determine the yield point, or hardness of a fat crystal network using cone penetrometry is provided. Experimental relationships of elastic modulus to cone penetrometry measurements are provided and discussed. It was found that the shear elastic moduli of fat crystal networks are directly proportional to the hardness of the network as measured by cone penetrometry, for some eight different fat systems.

Environmental applications of thermal extraction cone penetrometry and ultrafast gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

AbstractThis article describes the collection and analysis of organic contaminants at depth without bringing soil to the surface. A thermal extraction cone penetrometer (TECP) probe was used to extract soil‐bound semivolatile organics, transferring them to the surface for analysis by ultrafast gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Findings showed that polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated pesticides, and explosives could be collected and analyzed in 5 min when the soil‐water content was &lt;20% and in 15 min when it was between 20 and 35%. When the TECP was directly connected to the GC/MS, trinitrotoluene (TNT) and four of its synthetic precursors were speciated in 20 sec. Moreover, 51 VOCs were detected by membrane‐inlet mass spectrometry in ∼10 sec. Organics were “sniffed” from a vial and identified using the Ion Fingerprint Detection™ software. The algorithms provide the means to untangle complex mass spectra making real‐time, electronic nose detection and identification by MS possible. © 2001 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. Field Analyt Chem Technol 5: 60–68, 2001

Monitored Natural Attenuation of Explosives

Explosives are subject to several attenuation processes that potentially reduce concentrations in groundwater over time. Some of these processes are well defined, while others are poorly understood. The objective of the project was to optimize data collection and processing procedures for evaluation and implementation of monitored natural attenuation of explosives. After conducting experiments to optimize data quality, a protocol was established for quarterly monitoring of thirty wells over a 2-year period at a former waste disposal site. Microbial biomarkers and stable isotopes of nitrogen and carbon were explored as additional approaches to tracking attenuation processes. The project included a cone penetrometry sampling event to characterize site lithology and to obtain sample material for biomarker studies. A three-dimensional groundwater model was applied to conceptualize and predict future behavior of the contaminant plume. The groundwater monitoring data demonstrated declining concentrations of explosives over the 2 years. Biomarker data showed the potential for microbial degradation and provided an estimate of the degradation rate. Measuring stable isotopic fractions of nitrogen in TNT was a promising method of monitoring TNT attenuation. Overall, results of the demonstration suggest that monitored natural attenuation is a viable option that should be among the options considered for remediation of explosives-contaminated sites.

Physical and textural properties of an experimental table margarine prepared from lipase-catalysed transesterified palm stearin: palm kernel olein mixture during storage

The storage performances of an experimental table margarine prepared from Rhizomucor miehei-catalysed transesterified palm stearin (PS): palm kernel olein (PKO) (40:60) mixture and a commercial margarine, stored at temperatures of 20 and 30°C were evaluated for their slip melting point (SMP), peroxide value (PV), cone penetrometry (CP), storage modulus (G′) and solid fat content (SFC). All samples showed acceptable PV levels after three months of storage. Cone penetrometric, SMP and SFC results indicated that generally the experimental samples were firmer than the commercial samples. Significant correlations were observed between SFC and penetration values (r=0.82; P<0.01). Interestingly, the storage modulus (G′) values and yield values of the samples also showed significant correlations (r=0.89; P<0.001).

Rapid in situ collection and analysis of semivolatile organics by thermal extraction cone penetrometry gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

Rapid in situ collection and analysis of semivolatile organics by thermal extraction cone penetrometry gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

Rapid in situ collection and analysis of semivolatile organics by thermal extraction cone penetrometry gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

A thermal extraction cone penetrometer (TECP) has been developed to detect subsurface contaminants in situ without bringing soil to the surface or into a collection chamber. Coupled with thermal desorption gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) sample collection and analysis can be accomplished in ∼20 min for the full range of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Target Compounds (EPA). TECP extraction efficiencies of 50 to 100% can be obtained for most EPA Method 8270 compounds. Results of 99 volatile and semivolatile organics analyzed from the same TECP extracted soil in 16 and 40 min are presented. Measurement precision and accuracy were well within the Method 8270 benchmarks required for solvent-extracted soils analyzed by GC/MS. The total ion and reconstructed ion current chromatograms are shown for chlorinated solvents and gasoline constituents extracted from a hazardous waste site located at Hanscom Air Force Base (Bedford, MA). Data compared favorably against traditional purge and trap GC/MS. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Field Analyt Chem Technol 4: 85–92, 2000

Rapid in situ collection and analysis of semivolatile organics by thermal extraction cone penetrometry gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

A thermal extraction cone penetrometer (TECP) has been developed to detect subsurface contaminants in situ without bringing soil to the surface or into a col- lection chamber. Coupled with thermal desorption gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-GC/MS) sample collection and analysis can be accomplished in 20 min for the full range of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Target Compounds (EPA). TECP extraction effi- ciencies of 50 to 100% can be obtained for most EPA Method 8270 compounds. Results of 99 volatile and semivolatile organics analyzed from the same TECP ex- tracted soil in 16 and 40 min are presented. Measurement precision and accuracy were well within the Method 8270 benchmarks required for solvent-extracted soils ana- lyzed by GC/MS. The total ion and reconstructed ion cur- rent chromatograms are shown for chlorinated solvents and gasoline constituents extracted from a hazardous waste site located at Hanscom Air Force Base (Bedford, MA). Data compared favorably against traditional purge and trap GC/MS. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Field Analyt Chem Technol 4: 85-92, 2000

Speciation of Subsurface Contaminants by Cone Penetrometry Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

A thermal extraction cone penetrometry gas chroma tography/mass spectrometry system (TECP GC/MS) has been developed to detect subsurface contaminants in situ. The TECP can collect soil-bound organics up to depths of 30 m. In contrast to traditional cone penetrometer sample collectors, the TECP extracts organics from soil without bringing the soil to the surface or into a collection chamber. Results show that polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated pesticides, and explosives can be recovered (60−95%) from wet or dry soil, with extraction efficiency compound-specific. The data are in remarkable agreement with closed cell thermal desorption (TD) experiments, where no organics are lost to the environment during heating. TECP GC/MS results also compare favorably with solvent-extracted GC/MS analyses and can be used to delineate the presence and extent of contamination at hazardous waste sites. Data illustrating TECP dependence on probe temperature and soil moisture as well as carrier gas linear velocity and volume (modified Reynolds number) are shown along with sample analysis data from two hazardous waste sites. The total ion and reconstructed ion current chromatograms are shown for PAHs collected by TECP from a coal tar contaminated soil obtained at a manufactured gas plant in Massachusetts. TECP and TD results are within 15% for nonvolatile PAHs and within 50% of the solvent-extracted data.