Conditional Mixed Process Research Articles

The long-term effect of childhood left-behind experiences on entrepreneurial activities in adulthood: Empirical evidence from China

Although the issue of left-behind children has received academic attention, little is known about the potential long-term effect. This study was conducted in China, aiming to explore the impact of left-behind experiences in childhood on entrepreneurial activities in adulthood. The study design was quantitative and we used secondary data with samples from the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey. To mitigate potential endogeneity problems, we adopted the conditional mixed process approach with instrumental variable. The empirical results show that left-behind experiences decreased the likelihood of adulthood entrepreneurship, which is supported by some robustness tests. This negative impact can be partially explained by disadvantages in human capital and social networks as well as risk aversion. Moreover, we found that the exogenous shocks from hukou transfer and WTO accession weaken the negative impact of left-behind experiences and lack of entrepreneurship can further explain the income penalization effect of left-behind experiences. Our study provides new evidence for the life course theory and reveals the long-term adverse effects of left-behind experiences in childhood. Also, we shed light on safeguarding the welfare of left-behind children and young people with left-behind experiences.

Market Participation and Farmers’ Adoption of Green Control Techniques: Evidence from China

As a standard clean production technology, the wide use of green control techniques (GCT) helps improve the quality of agricultural products and protect the environment. However, the level of application of GCT by Chinese farmers is not high. The market, as the ultimate place to realize the value of grain and the returns of grain farmers, plays an essential part in promoting GCT. Based on survey data from grain farmers in Sichuan Province, China, this study used a conditional mixed process (CMP) model to examine the effect of farmers’ market participation on their GCT adoption behavior and a mediated effects model to test the impact mechanism. The study further explored the effect of farmers’ market participation capability on their GCT adoption behavior. The results showed that (1) farmers’ market participation could significantly increase the likelihood of adopting GCT. (2) Market participation could influence farmers’ adoption behavior through agricultural income, market information, and green cognition. (3) Further research found that farmers were more likely to adopt GCT if their market participation capability was strong. These findings highlight the fact that developing countries have increased their efforts to encourage farmers to participate in markets and to enhance their market participation capability, thereby facilitating the adoption of GCT by farmers.

Study on the Effect of Digital Technology Adoption and Farmers’ Cognition on Fertilizer Reduction and Efficiency Improvement Behavior

Based on the field survey data for 1216 apple growers in three provinces from China’s Loess Plateau Region, this paper adopted Multivariate Probit (MVP) model and intermediary effect model to analyze the influence mechanisms of digital technology adoption (DTA) on farmers’ choices of Fertilizer-reduction and Efficiency-improving Technologies (FETs) from the perspective of farmers’ cognition (FC). The correlation effects of three typical FETs of soil testing and formula fertilization, integrated water-fertilizer fertilization and slow/controlled release fertilizer, were tested empirically. The results showed that DTA could significantly affect the adoption of FETs by apple growers, and FC played a partial mediating role, and there were complementary effects among the three typical FETs. The results were further confirmed by the propensity score matching (PSM) robustness test and the instrumental variable (IV) endogeneity test conducted in the conditional mixed-process (CMP). The results of our heterogeneity analysis showed that the promotion effect of DTA on FETs in the group with junior high school education or below was more significant than that in the group with higher education, and the promotion effect was more significant in the group with large operation scale. Therefore, the improvement in Internet penetration should not be taken as the ultimate goal, but more attention should be paid to farmers’ mastery and effective use of DTA, promote the improvement in farmers’ cognitive level, and implement the “bundled” publicity and guidance strategy of FETs adoption, so as to help in the green transformation of agriculture.

Interdependence of rural household welfare measurement in the context of climate variability in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian government and various stakeholders have made significant efforts to improve household consumption, poverty, and food security. However, the results have not met expectations. To ensure that programs are effective, it is critical to have a robust measure of well-being that considers social, economic, institutional and environmental challenges. Previous studies on welfare have focused on a single measurement, but it is important to recognize the interdependence between various well-being indicators to formulate comprehensive interventions and initiatives for rural households in the context of climate change and variability. This paper examines the dynamic link between unidimensional poverty, multidimensional poverty, and food security using panel data from Ethiopia. The interdependency of welfare measurements was estimated using a seemingly unrelated multivariate probit model with a conditional mixed process estimator with full information, a simulated maximum likelihood approach, and the presumption that different metrics can have various policy implications. The chances of interdependence wellbeing status were low for households that were simultaneously food insecure and poor or nonpoor. Multidimensional poverty has a higher success rate than food insecurity or consumption poverty. Unlike unidimensional poverty and food insecurity, multidimensional poverty has a higher chance of to be deprived. Policymakers must consider the synergies and trade-offs of different types of welfare and the dynamic linkage between climate-induced shocks and other covariates with household welfare to minimize households' vulnerability to climate-induced shocks for effective intervention for rural households to obtain a whole picture of wellbeing.

Effect of health rights accessibility on the urban integration of minority rural migrants in China: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAccessing health rights is an integral component of people’s aspirations for a better life. Existing discussions and evaluations regarding the accessibility of health rights for minority rural migrants are insufficient. In comparison to objective health conditions, inequalities in health rights lead to chronic and long-term depletion of human capital among minority rural migrants. This study aimed to assess the overall impact, heterogeneity effects, and mechanisms of health rights accessibility on the urban integration of minority rural migrants.MethodsBased on the 2017 China Migrants Dynamic Survey Data (CMDS), this study employs OLS models, 2SLS models, conditional mixed process (CMP) methods, and omitted variable tests to estimate the impact of health rights accessibility on the urban integration of minority rural migrants. Additionally, from the perspectives of migration scope and illness experience, this study explored the heterogeneity in the relationship between health rights accessibility and urban integration. Finally, using the Karlson–Holm–Breen (KHB) model, this study dissects the mechanisms through which health rights accessibility influences the urban integration of minority rural migrants.ResultsHealth rights accessibility significantly enhances the urban integration of minority rural migrants. Moreover, compared to minority rural migrants who move across provinces and who have no history of illness, those who migrate within the same province and who have experienced illness are more sensitive to the positive impact of health rights accessibility. However, the enhancing effect of health rights accessibility does not significantly differ between the new and old generations of minority rural migrants. Furthermore, health rights accessibility can indirectly improve the urban integration of minority rural migrants by elevating health levels, improving health habits, and reinforcing health behaviors. Among these, the indirect effects mediated by health habits are more pronounced.ConclusionThe research conclusions underscore the issue of health accessibility and urban integration among minority rural migrants, providing a reexamination and clarification of the policy effects of health rights in promoting the urban integration of minority rural migrants. Relevant policy design should commence with improving the health rights of minority rural migrants, enhancing their health integration capabilities, and effectively boosting their ability to integrate into urban life.

Drivers of extent of commercialization of potato farming through digital marketing platforms in Nakuru County, Kenya

Digital agricultural marketing platforms have emerged as one of the key tools for facilitating farmers’ access to markets. While previous studies have predominantly focused on examining factors influencing adoption of these platforms, there remains a gap in understanding factors that determine the proportion of a farmer’s produce marketed through the platforms. This knowledge is crucial for effective scaling up of digital marketing platforms. Consequently, this research aimed to evaluate the extent of commercialization of potato farming through Digital Agricultural Marketing Platforms (DAMPs), with a specific focus on the M-shamba platform in Kenya. To achieve this objective, data was collected in 2022 from a sample of 375 potato farmers from Nakuru County. The data was analyzed with Stata using probit and Tobit models through the conditional mixed process. The findings revealed that total farm income, price per kilogram of output, access to credit, size of the farm dedicated to potato cultivation, and age of the household head influenced the use of M-shamba platform. Further, the extent of commercialization through M-shamba was significantly determined by total livestock units, marketing decision-maker, having potato farming as primary enterprise, farm income, access to credit, membership to agricultural groups, and age of the household head. In light of these findings, the study recommends targeted support and training programs for older farmers to enhance their proficiency in utilizing DAMPs. Moreover, policies and initiatives aimed at increasing farm income should be implemented to assist farmers with limited incomes. Farmers in groups should be encouraged to participate in collective digital marketing efforts.

The Impact of Digital Technology Use on Farmers’ Land Transfer-In: Empirical Evidence from Jiangsu, China

In China, characterized by its vast population and limited land, expanding the scale of agricultural operations through the transfer of land management rights is a crucial pathway to achieving agricultural modernization. Using data from the China Land Economic Survey (CLES), we empirically explored the influence of digital technology use on land transfer-in by farmers. Employing the Probit model and the KHB method, this study examined the mechanisms underlying this relationship and addressed the issue of endogeneity through the Conditional Mixed Process (CMP) model, grounded in the instrumental variable method. Key findings include: (1) both the accessibility and the depth of digital technology use significantly facilitated land transfer-in by farmers. For every one-unit increase in digital technology accessibility, the likelihood of land transfer-in escalated by 6.2%; similarly, a one-unit rise in the depth of digital technology use increased this probability by 2.6%. (2) An analysis of the mechanisms indicates that social networks and credit availability played partial mediating roles in the impact of digital technology accessibility and depth on land transfer-in, with social networks exhibiting a stronger mediation effect. (3) Heterogeneity analysis suggests that the impact of digital technology use on land transfer-in was more pronounced in peri-urban villages and among farmers with higher literacy levels. In light of these findings, we proposed policy recommendations to accelerate the development of rural digital infrastructure, enhance digital skill training for farm households, and vigorously promote rural digital inclusive finance.

How can energy poverty affect farmers’ health? Evidence from mountainous areas in China

The two important goals of sustainable development, affordable and clean energy, and good health and well-being have attracted global attention. This study explores the nexus and impact pathways between energy poverty and farmers' health, defining energy poverty from a multidimensional perspective that includes cooking, washing, warming, cooling, showering, traveling, entertainment, education, and communication. A mixed approach is deployed by using 1016 survey data collected from the rural mountainous areas of China, where the probit model, ordinary least squares, and conditional mixed process estimation methods are used for model estimation. Results indicate that farmers' physical and mental health is significantly negatively affected by multidimensional energy poverty. Regards to the different dimensions of energy poverty, cooking energy and traveling energy have considerable negative impacts on farmers' health. In terms of population heterogeneity, multidimensional energy poverty has a worse effect on farmers' health in the empty-nest stage and on males. To alleviate multidimensional energy poverty and improve health, this study proposes targeted policy recommendations for domestic policymakers and can shed light on other developing economies facing similar challenges.

Neighborhood effects on the health of elderly persons: evidence from China

BackgroundPresently, global aging has become increasingly serious, whereas the health concerns brought by aging have become a public issue that warrants an urgent solution from all countries across the world. Therefore, this research paper discusses the influence of neighborhood health on elderly individuals’ health, and extending a realistic basis for the other economies to improve the neighborhood environment and promote the health of the elderly.MethodsBased on the data of CHARLS2018, this research paper adopts the samples that fulfill the study requirements (N = 7326). we constructed a comprehensive research framework integrating oprobit regression model, heterogeneity analysis, conditional mixed process(CMP)robustness testing, Furthermore, the KHB decomposition method is implemented to ascertain the influential mechanism of NMH and NPH on the mental- and physical health of elderly persons.ResultsThe oprobit regression model analysis indicates that NMH 0.434 and NPH 0.550 exert positive influences on the elderly’s mental- and physical health. Meanwhile, the effects of conditional mixed process on NMH and NPH stand at 0.381 and4.372, which are different from the oprobit regression results; thereby, indicating the existence of endogeneity. Afterward, KHB mediating effect confirms that Internet use, gift reciprocity, and charity activity contribute 30.21% and 16.83% to mental- and physical health, respectively.ConclusionsFirstly, the NMH and NPH demonstrate a positive influence on the mental- and physical health of the elder population. However, there exist heterogeneous differences. Secondly, the conditional mixed process deals with the endogeneity of NMH and NPH. Thirdly, social integration, social interaction, and social engagement serve as significant transmission mechanisms for the influences of NMH and NPH on the health of elderly persons.

Does food safety perception matter to farmers’ happiness？ evidence from China

Although the determinants of individuals' happiness have been widely examined in the literature, little is known regarding whether and how food safety perception affects farmers' happiness. To fill this research gap, this paper examines the impact of food safety perception on happiness among Chinese farmers, utilizing open-access data collected through the Chinese Social Survey project in 2013, 2017 and 2021. This study focuses on Chinese farmers as the research subject, attempting to analyze the “happiness code” from the perspective of food safety, which supplements the literature on happiness and provides reference for protecting the rights of low-income groups and promoting food safety strategies in developing countries. To address sample selection bias, this paper employs the recursive bivariate ordered probit (RBOP) model and conditional mixed process (CMP) method. The results reveal that the perception of food safety exerts a positive and statistically significant impact on farmers' happiness in China. In addition, food safety perception is more important among middle-aged and elderly farmers and among those with higher education. Thus, the policy makers should continue to make up for the shortcomings of rural food safety work and extend regulatory measures to rural areas. They also need to take efforts to strengthen food safety promotion, enhance farmers' safety awareness, and safeguard farmers’ “safety on the tongue”.

The effect of environmental degradation on self-reported health: the role of renewable energy consumption.

Although there are a number of studies in the literature that have explored the effect of environmental degradation on the subjective well-being and life satisfaction, no previous study has addressed the role of renewable energy consumption in examining the effect of environmental degradation on self-reported health. To this end, we employ a conditional mixed process (CMP) model, using a unique dataset that combines both micro-level data fromthe 6th (2010-2014) and 7th (2017-2022) Waves of the World Values Survey (WVS) database and macro-level data from the World Bank. Our study has several important empirical findings. First, while environmental degradation deteriorates self-reported health, social capital and health expenditure have a positive impact on self-reported health. Second, the share of renewable energy consumption in total final energy consumption has a statistically significant negative impact on environmental degradation. Third, urbanization has a deteriorating effect on environmental quality and the total number of people increases environmental degradation.

Do residential patterns affect women's labor market performance? An empirical study based on CHFS data.

Based on China Household Finance Survey (CHFS) data from 2019, this paper explores the impact of the residential pattern of coresidence with parents on the labor market performance of women in married families with minor children. The study finds that coresidence with parents significantly increases the possibility of female labor market participation and positively impacts women's employment income. To overcome the potential endogeneity problem of residential patterns, this paper uses the Heckman two-step method and the conditional mixed process estimation method (CMP method) for regression, and the conclusions remain robust. The mechanism analysis shows that coresidence with parents has both grandchild care and elderly care factors, which have a spillover effect and a crowding-out effect on female labor market performance, respectively. Since the spillover effect is more significant than the crowding-out effect, coresidence with parents positively impacts women's labor market performance. The heterogeneity analysis shows that in terms of labor force participation rate, coresidence with parents has a more significant impact on women in families with children aged 0-6, women in families without boys, and women in families with employed husbands. In terms of income, coresidence with parents has a more significant impact on women in families with employed husbands. This study provides a new perspective for promoting female labor market performance and can serve as a reference for future policy formulation.

The impact of digital ability on employment adequacy in rural China

ABSTRACT Digital ability can increase job-searching efficiency of labour. However, the impact of digital ability on employment adequacy in rural households in China has not received sufficient attention. Using survey data from 1,953 rural households in China, this study analyzes labour participation and working time as indicators of employment adequacy. Item response theory was used to construct digital ability indicators, while conditional mixed process, IV-Probit, and IV-Tobit models were used for empirical estimation. After controlling for endogeneity, the results show that: 1) digital ability has a positive impact on labour participation rate and total working time; 2) digital ability has a positive effect on non-agricultural participation and working time, but negative effect on agricultural participation and production time; 3) the promotion effect of digital ability on working time is more obvious in households with high dependency ratio and low income; 4) both overtime work and underemployment co-exist among rural households. These results provide evidence that digital ability promotes employment adequacy and off-farm transfer of rural labour. Policymakers should consider improving the digital ability of rural households, especially those with high dependency burdens and low incomes. An in-depth discussion of digital ability should be undertaken in further research.

Climate-smart agricultural practices for promoting sustainable agrifood production: Yield impacts and implications for food security

Climate change is increasing the vulnerability of agriculture to climate risks and hindering sustainable agrifood production. This study explored whether and to what extent adopting climate-smart agricultural practices (CAPs) can contribute to food security by improving crop yields. We focussed on five CAPs—minimum tillage, improved rice varieties, farmyard manure, water-saving technology, and biopesticides. Recognising that the adoption of CAPs is potentially endogenous, we employed a conditional mixed process model that simultaneously estimates an ordered probit regression and a linear regression; the former investigates the factors that influence farmers’ decisions to intensify the adoption of CAPs, and the latter shows how intensifying the adoption is associated with crop yield. We analysed data collected from a survey of rice farmers that we conducted in five Chinese provinces (Jiangsu, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, and Sichuan) in January and February of 2022. The results show that intensifying the adoption of CAPs improved rice yield by 94 kg/mu (equivalent to 1,410 kg/ha). We also found that educated farmers, those who experienced a drought during the most recent growing season, and individuals who perceived the rainfall to have changed during the five years preceding the survey were more likely to intensify the adoption of CAPs.

The contribution of risk perception and social norms to reported preventive behaviour against selected vector-borne diseases in Guyana

Preventing vector-borne diseases (VBDs) mainly relies on effective vector control tools and strategies, which in turn depend on population acceptance and adherence. Inspired by the abundant recent literature on SARS-COV-2, we investigate the relationship between risk perception and preventive behaviour for selected VBDs and the extent to which risk perception is determined by social norms. We use cross-sectional data collected from 497 individuals in four regions of Guyana in 2017. We use a conditional mixed process estimator with multilevel coefficients, estimated through a Generalized Linear Model (GLM) framework, applying a simultaneous equation structure. We find robust results on malaria: risk perception was significantly influenced by the risk perception of the reference group across different definitions of the reference group, hinting at the existence of social norms. Risk perception significantly increased the likelihood of passive behaviour by 4.48%. Less clear-cut results were found for dengue. This study applies quantitative social science methods to public health issues in the context of VBDs. Our findings point to the relevance of tailoring communications on health risks for VBDs to groups defined at the intersection of socio-economic and demographic characteristics. Such tailored strategies are expected to align risk perception among reference groups and boost preventive behaviour.

Does off-farm work alleviate rural households’ energy poverty in China? Comparative analysis based on livelihood patterns

Energy poverty is a global problem, particularly complex and severe in rural areas of developing countries. To address this issue, a theoretical framework is constructed based on the energy ladder theory and family altruism theory, to discuss the role of off-farm work in alleviating energy poverty for rural households. Using data from the Chinese Family Panel Studies, this study identifies the off-farm work patterns and multiple energy poverty index (MEPI) of different rural households, then analyzes the off-farm work and the distance of off-farm work on the MEPI of rural households by employing Oprobit model and conditional mixed process method and verifies the mediating effect of household income. The results show that local off-farm work significantly alleviates the MEPI among rural households. This effect is particularly pronounced among entrepreneurial households and those residing in communities with a higher level of commercial development. On the other hand, the MEPI alleviation effect of distant off-farm work is relatively modest, and this mitigation effect disappears among households with left-behind students and those living in communities with lower levels of commercial development. Furthermore, both forms contribute to the alleviation of MEPI by enhancing household income.

Linking farmers to markets: Does cooperative membership facilitate e-commerce adoption and income growth in rural China?

This study uses the 2020 China Rural Revitalization Survey to investigate the associations between cooperative membership, E-commerce adoption, and household income. Using the conditional mixed process framework, we find that cooperative membership promotes rural households’ e-commerce adoption, and cooperative membership and e-commerce adoption significantly increase rural household income. The two-stage predictor substitution approach confirms this result. Further, participating in different types of cooperatives has heterogeneous effects on the e-commerce adoption decision and household income growth. However, regardless of whether or which cooperative households participate in, e-commerce adoption significantly increases household income. Policymakers can work with e-commerce enterprises, leverage the current cooperatives, especially the village stock economic and market cooperative, and set up e-commerce cooperatives to popularize e-commerce-related knowledge to encourage e-commerce adoption among rural households. Further, considering the regional disparities in e-commerce adoption, it is essential to strengthen the policy support for the rural households residing in Central and Western China to narrow the “digital divide.”

Market participation and subjective well-being of maize farmers

This study explores how maize farmers’ market participation influences their subjective well-being, utilizing the 2020 China Rural Revitalization Survey data collected by the Chinese Academy of Social Science. Three variables, including market participation (a binary variable), sales ratio (a continuous variable), and sales frequency (a categorical variable), are utilized to measure maize farmers’ market participation patterns comprehensively By estimating a conditional mixed process model, this study finds that maize farmers’ market participation significantly improves their subjective well-being captured by happiness, life satisfaction, and confidence about the future by 0.672, 0.925, and 1.125 points, respectively. Maize income mediates the positive association between farmers’ market participation and their subjective well-being. The disaggregated analyses reveal that farmers at the household income tertiles 2 and 3 obtain a higher level of happiness, life satisfaction, and confidence about the future. Meanwhile, market participation significantly improves life satisfaction and confidence about the future of farmers experiencing natural disasters, while it increases the happiness of farmers who do not have such experiences. Farmers’ market participation significantly improves their objective well-being regarding pork consumption and milk consumption by 68 g/capita/day and 56 g/capita/day, respectively. Further analysis confirms that market participation intensity, reflected by sales ratio and frequency, significantly increases farmers’ subjective well-being. These findings highlight that the government should devote more efforts to inciting maize farmers to participate in market transactions to increase farmers’ incomes and subjective well-being.

Examining whether religion is a positive factor in access to self-employment for youths: evidences from Congolese data

PurposeHigh levels of youth unemployment in Africa, the difficulty of accessing salaried jobs, and the weakness of public institutions in charge of employment issues push youths towards informal channels that can help them find jobs. Among these informal channels, religion has been playing an increasingly important role. Thus, this study aimed to analyse the effects of religion on youths' access to self-employment.Design/methodology/approachThis study used data from the survey on the improvement of youth employment policies in Francophone Africa—conducted in 2018 by the Laboratory for Economic and Social Research and Studies (LARES) of Marien Ngouabi University—to estimate the effects of religion on access to self-employment. The econometric model employed is a two-stage model. Conditional mixed process developed by Roodman (2011) was used to verify the model's robustness.FindingsThe results indicate that religion exhibits a positive and significant effect on access to self-employment. This effect is stronger for youths from Muslim communities than for those from other religious communities, compared to youths who do not engage in religious communities.Social implicationsBased on the current dynamics observed in numerous African countries with respect to employment access, these results imply that religious denominations should be considered when developing policies and programs related to employment, particularly for youths.Originality/valueThe approach followed in this study contributes to the literature predominantly by demonstrating how the network theory approach helps explain, to some extent, the link between religion and access to employment in general and access to self-employment, particularly in developing economies—mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the recourse to informal channels of access to self-employment constitutes a significant solution approach for youths.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-02-2023-0097

Grossman–Hart–Moore Goes to Italy: Rethinking the Boundaries of the Firm

This paper provides new empirical evidence on the boundaries of the firm, as shaped by the ownership (make-or-buy) and location (domestic-or-foreign) decisions of sourcing. In particular, we draw on the Grossman–Hart–Moore framework to investigate the role of input characteristics, investment spillovers and firm productivity in ownership and location decisions. For the purpose of the empirical analysis, we rely on original survey data of a stratified sample of Italian manufacturing firms, headquartered in Lombardy. Our probit, multinomial probit and conditional mixed process estimations suggest a number of robust regularities. Some of them confirm so far unexplored theoretical predictions from the Grossman–Hart–Moore framework; others provide new insights on specific relationships on which the theory is silent. As for ownership, we find that reliance on specific inputs and intangible inputs fosters integration over non-integration; moreover, firms acknowledging cross spillover effects are more likely to opt for joint-venture than non-integration. As for location, domestic sourcing prevails over foreign sourcing in presence of investment spillovers, whereas input characteristics play no role. Lastly, productivity is a major driver of the boundaries of the firm in that productive firms are more likely to source abroad than domestically. Holding across different econometric models and a number of robustness checks, our results contribute to the property rights theory of the firm and its recent developments.