Performance-based Design Concept Research Articles

Performance evaluation of high-rise buildings using database-assisted design approach

In recent years, performance-based design (PBD) has gained attention and is sought to be the benchmark approach in the field of wind engineering. While the concept of performance-based design is well-accepted in earthquake engineering, it is yet to be embraced for the design of buildings to resist severe wind loads. This paper introduces a framework for the performance-based wind design (PBWD) of tall steel buildings using a time domain analysis that keeps the process of wind effects and the structural design process integrated, transparent, and fully auditable. From the perspective of PBWD, the main objective is to achieve a desirable performance level for a given hazard level, i.e., mean recurrence interval of extreme wind. The wind effects are directly related to the mean annual return of wind through a well-accepted simulation approach. A 180 m tall standard CAARC building is used for the case study to illustrate the proposed methodology. The wind load time histories are determined using the pressure tap data on exterior faces of the building measured in the wind tunnel. With the calculated wind loads, nonlinear dynamic analysis is conducted with various wind directions and mean wind speeds based on database-assisted design (DAD) approach. The key performance measures such as demand-to-capacity indices, inter-story drift, damage deformation index, and floor accelerations are calculated as a function of wind directions and mean wind speed. The obtained responses are used in conjunction with a local wind climatological database to determine the extreme wind effects for any specific mean recurrence interval. The performance of the steel building is evaluated for three performance criteria, including occupant comfort, operational, and continuous occupancy. The conducted performance assessment reveals that building fails to satisfy the serviceability requirement of drifts. However, the building satisfies the requirements for the occupant comfort and operational performance levels for strength design, while it also satisfies the continuous occupancy, limited interruption in Risk category II. The result reveals that the proposed framework provides realistic assessment of performance of the building incorporating the wind directionality and return period of the wind speeds.

Nonlinear time domain seismic response and performance evaluation of A-frame jumbo-size container cranes

Seismic responses of A-frame jumbo-size container cranes are comprehensively studied by exciting them as realistically as practical to evaluate the adequacy of the conventional static approach routinely used for their design. Multiple design earthquake time histories corresponding to the structure and site-specific earthquake design spectra corresponding to specific return periods are selected for the nonlinear time domain dynamic analyses. Cranes are considered to be in service (i.e., boom down), (2) at rest (i.e., boom up or stowed) with a friction contact support condition, and (3) at rest with tie-downs installed conditions. They are represented by finite elements, and appropriate dynamic properties are used following the practices commonly used in the profession. The seismic responses, in terms of base shear force, vertical wheel load, main member stress, portal drift ratio, and uplift, are estimated to define several performance objectives and their corresponding limits. Two container cranes with different dynamic properties and their responses are used to make the final recommendations. The in-service operating condition appears to be the most critical. The variation in the stress responses between the cranes in the at-rest and in-service conditions is about 17 %. However, the uplift in the stowed crane can be about 82 % higher than that in the in-service crane. The commonly used lateral load method using the static concept may not always be conservative, especially for the base shear force and vertical wheel load. For example, the method significantly underestimates the base shear force by about 52 % for the slender crane and 26 % for the relatively stiffer crane. Thus, the nonlinear time domain approach proposed here should always be used. It will satisfy the performance-based seismic design concept under development at present.

Seismic performance and collapse analysis of RC framed-wall structure excited with Turkey/Syria destructive earthquake

Due to the increasingly serious threat of natural disasters, it is crucial to examine the ability of buildings to withstand such catastrophes. The damaged structures observed in the recent Turkey/Syria destructive earthquake on February 6th, 2023, attracted the attention of experts and stirred controversy regarding the main causes of this extensive damage. Since numerical simulation is widely utilized as a powerful tool to investigate the buildings’ seismic response, an efficient simulation procedure is presented to investigate the structural response and capture the damage induced in RC framed-wall structure excited by the Turkey/Syria earthquake and aims to present valuable remarks to avoid or even mitigate the damage that may occur in future events. Moreover, the ground motion vertical component is typically neglected in structural design/analysis, and the recent seismic codes did not consider it adequately, leading to a lack of general understanding of the structural response and threatening the structures’ safety. However, the results revealed that considering vertical components substantially impacts the structural response where significant amplification is recorded. A comprehensive comparison between the two cases (excitation with HL component and combined HL and VL components), when the building is excited with two records of this event, is presented in terms of displacement time history, inter-story drift, and straining actions. For instance, the amplification index AISR for the shear forces ranges between 13% to 387% and 35% to 47% for the axial compression force at the first record and ranges between 13% to 62% for the shear forces and 12% to 50% for the axial compression force at the second record. Furthermore, the collapse analysis is performed to explore the structural collapse pattern under this earthquake, which affects the adjacent road network resilience and evacuation plans. This study is crucial for implementing effective risk mitigation measures, enhancing the buildings’ resilience, and is of great importance for the performance-based design concept since damage anticipation and domination are the main objectives of this design concept.

Studi Kinerja Struktur Beton Bertulang Beraturan Yang Didisain Dengan Performance Based Plastic Design

Indonesia is a country that has a very high level of seismicity. It is necessary to plan a building structure that can withstand the earthquake load. Indonesia has adopted guidelines on earthquake resistance planning procedures for buildings and non-buildings. This guideline uses the Performance-Based Seismic Design (PBSD) concept. Performance-Based Plastic Design (PBPD) is a structural analysis with the concept of energy methods which was initially used on steel structures. For reinforced concrete structures this method can also be used using the C2 coefficient. To determine the performance level of structures designed using the Performance-Based Plastic Design method, an analysis of the five-story reinforced concrete structure was carried out. Next, the structure will be analyzed using pushover loads. From the structural performance analysis, the structural ductility value based on Performance-Based Plastic Design (PBPD) was 3.014. The performance level is based on the capacity spectrum at the immediate occupancy level.

Reliability of steel structures with Chevron bracing systems considering the performance-based seismic design philosophy

In this paper, the seismic performance and reliability of steel buildings with Chevron-Braced frames are studied integrating a novel probabilistic approach and the performance-based seismic design concept. The seismic response of models is extracted using response history analyses with the help the commercial software SAP2000. In this sense, three variables associated with the seismic response of the structure are studied: overall lateral displacement, rotation of connections, and inter-story drift. Those responses are evaluated by exciting the structure with eleven characteristic ground motions of the zone with respect to three performance levels: immediate occupancy, life safety, and collapse prevention. Once the seismic response is extracted for every performance level, the reliability of the models is calculated with respect to inter-story drift as described next. First, considering the seismic response in terms of inter-story drift for every ground motion, the associated histogram is constructed. Then, using 13 Probability Density Functions (PDFs), a Chi-square test is performed to identify the best-fitted PDF associated to the histogram of inter-story drift. Afterwards, with the best-fitted PDF of inter-story drift, the probability of failure and reliability index are extracted considering serviceability limits for every performance level. This represents a unique approach to extract the risk of structures subjected to ground motions associated to different performance levels. In addition to the structural reliability, a study about the cost of the structures with and without Chevron braces is developed, and then, it is documented the best option. Finally, based on the results reported in this paper, it is demonstrated that steel buildings with Chevron-braced frames present a better seismic performance than steel moment resisting frames without any bracing system. In summary, overall lateral drifts are reduced between 40 and 60% when Chevron braces are implemented in comparison to steel moment resisting frames without braces. On the other hand, if Chevron bracing systems are not used, i.e., in steel moment resisting frames, the inter-story drifts are about 300% higher than those of steel structures with Chevron braces. Hence, structural damages can be considerably reduced if Chevron-braced frames are implemented in steel structures that may be excited by characteristic ground motions of the zone where they are located.

Monotonic and Cyclic Modelling of Structural Steel for Finite Element Analysis

Nowadays, as a response to the promoted concept of performance-based seismic design, the finite element method (FEM) has become an omnipresent practice that supports the simulation of structural elements. This approach requires constitutive numerical models, which could reproduce both elastic and plastic behaviour of steel. Looking forward to a reliable FEM simulation, the modelling and calibration of steel undergoing monotonic and cyclic loading tests is investigated in this paper. With respect to monotonic tensile test, a sensitivity analysis regarding mesh refinement and finite element type is developed. Another inspected issue, such as high-strength steel modelling, taking into consideration low ductility and absence of yield plateau, is also presented. And finally, a model for structural steel, using the combined isotropic-kinematic hardening model, is introduced to simulate metal non-linear behaviour under ultra-low-cycle fatigue regime. All these numerical simulations are processed via Abaqus software package, and are validated by a set of experimental tests.

Dynamic behavior of liquefiable ground reinforced by in-situ cement-mixing lattice wall

In-situ cement-mixing lattice-shaped ground improvement (lattice wall) is one of the effective countermeasures for liquefiable grounds. However, its high cost hinders its wide applicability. This is mainly due to the conventional concept of seismic designs which do not allow any liquefaction of the ground against earthquakes.The recent seismic design code was revised to comply with the concept of performance-based design, which allows some displacement or slight damage to structures, such as pile foundations, during major earthquakes. In order to apply lattice walls to meet the concept of the recent design standard, especially against major earthquakes, it is necessary to establish a rational design method that considers the quantitative effect of lattice walls.In this study, therefore, a series of 1-g field shaking table tests was performed with a lattice wall, and the effect of the wall was carefully evaluated through the quantitative measurement of the stress–strain relationship of the liquefiable ground inside the lattice wall and in the free ground (without a lattice wall). It became possible to quantitatively examine the effect of the wall by installing small accelerometers into the ground with precision.Two major positive effects of the lattice wall were observed through the series of shaking table tests. One was the delay in the onset of liquefaction by the restriction of shear strain, and the other was the recovery of the shear stiffness of the ground even after the onset of liquefaction. These experimental results indicate that lattice walls can be applied as an effective liquefaction countermeasure method, especially when the performance-based design is applied to address large earthquakes.

Comparison of Damage Indexes for Assessing Seismic Fragility of Bearings in an Offshore Bridge

This study analyzes the applicability of different damage indexes for bearings, focusing on the time-dependent deterioration of materials and the time-dependent bond-slip behavior between steel and concrete caused by chloride erosion. First, the methodology is proposed, encompassing the time-dependent deterioration of materials, the time-dependent bond-slip behavior, the quantification of different damage indexes of the bearing, and the fragility analysis for the bearings. Next, an offshore bridge is used as an example to investigate the detailed elements of the components and the time-varying effects. Thereafter, based on incremental dynamic analysis and fragility analysis, the discussion focuses on the comparison of damage indexes for assessing the seismic fragility of bearings in an offshore bridge. This study indicates that if the relative displacement ductility ratio is adopted as the criterion, the coverage of PGA obtained by the theoretical method is 167% greater than that obtained using the empirical method, and the relative displacement ductility ratio, which incorporates the shear deformation of piers, is better aligned with the performance-based ductility design concept and offers better economy. Safety-based damage indexes are recommended for the bridge in seismic zones, while economy-based indexes can be used in favorable bridge environments.

Impact Behaviour of Steel-Fibre-Reinforced Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete Exposed to Elevated Temperatures.

Concrete protective structures are mainly meant to withstand impact loads. However, fire events weaken concrete and reduce its impact resistance. This study investigated the impact behaviour of steel-fibre-reinforced alkali-activated slag (AAS) concrete before and after exposure to elevated temperatures (i.e., 200 °C, 400 °C, and 600 °C). Hydration products' stability under elevated temperatures, their effects on the fibre-matrix bond, and, consequently, AAS's static and dynamic responses were investigated. The results reveal that adopting the performance-based design concept to achieve a balance between AAS mixtures' performance under ambient and elevated temperatures is a crucial designing aspect. Advancing hydration products' formation will increase the fibre-matrix bond at ambient temperature while negatively affecting it at elevated temperatures. High amounts of formed and, eventually, decomposed hydration products at elevated temperatures reduced the residual strength due to lowering the fibre-matrix bond and developing internal micro-cracks. Steel fibre's role in reinforcing the hydrostatic core formed during impact loads and delaying crack initiation was emphasized. These findings highlight the need to integrate material and structure design to achieve optimum performance and that low-grade materials can be desired based on the targeted performance. A set of empirical equations for the correlation between steel fibre content in the AAS mixture and corresponding impact performance before and after fire exposure was provided and verified.

Performance-based optimal sensor placement method for single-layer reticulated shells considering modal observability and damage identifiability

Structural health monitoring allows for the early detection of structural damage and provide valuable insight into structural performance. However, duo to numerous degrees of freedom and dense vibration modals, designing a sensor placement scheme for Single-Layer Reticulated Shells (SLRSs) is a challenging task. This paper introduces two performance indexes, namely the modal observability and damage identifiability, to quantitatively evaluate the efficiency of the sensor system. Subsequently, based on these indexes, the multi-objective optimization algorithm, as well as the performance-based design concepts, a novel performance-based optimal sensor placement (OSP) method for SLRSs is proposed. Two types of sensor placement performance curves, namely the sensor placement effect curve and the sensor placement proportion curve, are presented to determine the optimal number and placement of sensors in different directions. Numerical examples demonstrate that the proposed method can generate OSP schemes that meet various performance targets, and the performance-based OSP method is superior to the simple multi-objective OSP method. Furthermore, suggestion on selecting the total number of sensors for practical engineering applications is also provided.

Probabilistic Assessment of Buildings Subjected to Multi-Level Earthquake Loading Based on the PBSD Concept

An alternative probabilistic assessment of buildings excited by multi-level seismic loading is presented in this paper. This evaluation is developed for both steel and reinforced concrete buildings using the Performance-Based Seismic Design (PBSD) concept. The methodology implements Probability Density Functions (PDFs) of inter-story drifts to extract structural risk in terms of the reliability index. Ten buildings of steel and reinforced concrete, respectively, are designed considering different locations in Mexico. Then, each structure is excited by ground motions representing different earthquake intensity levels for three performance levels: immediate occupancy, life safety, and collapse prevention. The deterministic seismic response of buildings is extracted using the finite element software OpenSees. Based on the results, it can be stated that the probabilistic assessment technique represents an efficient approach for extracting the seismic risk of structures using PDFs of inter-story drifts. Lastly, it is demonstrated that the evaluation of buildings following PBSD is a step in the right direction, moving from traditional deterministic design concepts to probabilistic philosophies.

Kinerja Ketidakberaturan Kekakuan Struktur Menggunakan Metode DDBD dan CSM

The current earthquake-resistant building planning concept leads to a performance-based design concept. In this study, the direct displacement based design (DDBD) method was used to design the earthquake load and the capacity spectrum method (CSM) to determine the level of building performance using pushover analysis. The purpose of this study is to analyze and compare the performance of regular buildings with buildings that have irregular soft story stiffness. The building to be reviewed in this study consists of 3 variations of the building with a total of 8 floors. Variation A of regular buildings, Variation B of buildings with irregularity of soft story stiffness on the 1st floor, and Variation C of buildings with irregularity of soft story stiffness on the 5th floor. The maximum displacement value occurs in Variation C, the X direction is 0.281m and the Y direction is 0.304m. The mechanism for the occurrence of plastic joints in variations A, B, and C is in accordance with the strength column weak beam design concept. The earliest collapses occurred in Variation B buildings and the last occurred in Variation A buildings. Performance of variations A, B, and C structures using the CSM method was at the level of Damage Control.

Innovative Computational Techniques for Multi Criteria Decision Making, in the Context of Cultural Heritage Structures’ Fire Protection: Case Studies

Fire protection for cultural heritage structures is a challenging engineering task that could benefit from the use of specialized computational tools relying on a performance-based design (PBD) concept rather than on prescriptive-based fire protection codes. In the first part of the present study, the theoretical basis of the proposed computational selection and resource (S and R) allocation model is discussed, related to the assessment of the fire safety index (FSI) and the authenticity preservation index (API). Furthermore, two different multi criteria optimization approaches are proposed to generate optimized fire protection upgrading designs, incorporating the nondominated sorting evolution strategies II (NSES-II) algorithm and the analytic target cascading (ATC) method. In this second part of the present work, the proposed S and R allocation model is implemented in two test cases; Villa Bianca, a famous mansion in Thessaloniki, Greece, and the Monastery of Simonos Petra located in Mount Athos, Greece. Several cases are examined regarding the targeted FSI or API values, taking also into account budget restrictions. In cases where the preservation of the authenticity is considered as an objective within the design process, the need to implement more sophisticated and customized fire protection measures can lead to a significant increase up to almost 200% regarding the total cost, subject to the pursued safety level. Detailed results obtained for each case study are presented and discussed comparatively, demonstrating the efficiency of the proposed S and R allocation model in a wide range of scenarios, as well as its possible utility in multiple applications, facilitating the fire protection design process. Finally, a comparison between the two multi criteria optimization approaches incorporated in the study is also presented and discussed.

Fragility analysis for performance-based blast design of FRP-strengthened RC columns using artificial neural network

In this paper, fragility analysis for performance-based blast design of FRP-strengthened RC columns is carried out. The blast intensity levels, performance levels and performance objectives of the RC columns are defined. A simplified probabilistic risk assessment framework incorporating the performance-based design concept and fragility analysis is established. Since fragility analysis is the most important but time-consuming process of probabilistic assessment risk, an artificial neural network (ANN) based fragility analysis framework is proposed to improve its computational efficiency. Based on the rapid fragility analysis method, fragility curves of several typical RC columns with or without FRP strengthening are calculated to analyze their damage probabilities. This study provides avenues for engineers to estimate the failure probabilities of RC columns with or without FRP strengthening under blast loads and make decisions quickly.

Evaluating Different Approaches for the Hazard-Consistent Assessment of the Seismic Performance of Dams

ABSTRACT The current state of practice in the seismic assessment of dams relies on pseudoprobabilistic approaches in which the estimation of ground-motion intensity measures (IMs) is decoupled from the estimation of seismically induced displacements (D). In contrast, in a performance-based approach, which is gaining more popularity in practice, the entire IM hazard curve is used to provide displacement hazard curves (DHCs). Thus, engineers can directly estimate the displacement associated with a selected design hazard level, which is more consistent with performance-based design concepts. This study evaluates different approaches to estimate D in performance-based assessments that use D predictive equations, analytical D models, and advanced numerical modeling. To enable a comparison of different approaches under a hazard-consistent D assessment, we propose using the conditional scenario spectra (CSS) framework to select ground motions that directly reproduce the IM hazard. We perform the evaluations by comparing DHCs for a rockfill dam using (1) the convolution of D predictive models and the IM hazard, (2) the CSS approach combined with dynamic analyses performed with analytical models (i.e., stick-slip and transfer function models), and (3) the CSS approach combined with advance numerical modeling. The results show that the DHCs estimated from advanced numerical modeling are more conservative, which is associated with the inherent assumptions in D predictive equations or analytical D models formulated based on “Newmark-type” calculations. Finally, we discuss the differences between the different approaches to estimate D and provide insights in the context of pseudoprobabilistic-based estimates.

Introductory Review of Energy Efficiency in Buildings Retrofits

Energy-efficient building retrofits must be approached from three perspectives: law regulation approach, financial incentives approach, and practice approach. The concepts of zero energy building and life cycle energy building are presented as the basis for energy retrofits. Multi-criteria boards to assess the decision-making process are reviewed, analysed, and categorised under an architectonic perspective. Some examples are presented, with different packages of measures, from deep to non-invasive energy retrofits. Passive and active energy generation systems, together with control and management strategies, are the physical elements identified with the potential to improve buildings’ energy efficiency. From a practice approach, this literature review identifies the concept of performance-based architectural design to optimise the planning and design of buildings’ energy retrofits. In addition, tools such as Building Information Modelling are described as part of optimisation processes, as they enable designers to rapidly analyse and simulate a building’s performance at the design stage.

Response modification factors for dual moment-resisting frames with vertical links: Multilevel approach

Despite the growing applications of the performance-based design concepts for seismic design of structures, the response modification factors for structural systems proposed by the current design codes and standards do not generally consider different hazard and performance levels. Therefore, these factors are not directly applicable for performance-based design purposes. As a step to address this shortcoming, the present study aims to propose multilevel response modification factors for multistory dual moment-resisting frames equipped with eccentric braces and vertical links corresponding to different seismicity levels and performance targets. The concept of demand and capacity response modification factors is introduced, and these parameters are calculated for moment-resisting frame structures with 3-, 5-, and 7-stories before and after the addition of vertical steel shear links. It is shown that the calculated capacity response modification factors for the dual frames equipped with vertical links are generally higher than the demand response modification factors proposed by the design code for such systems under the design basis earthquake hazard level. This indicates the efficiency of the eccentric braces with the vertical links in improving the seismic reliability and performance of the moment-resisting steel frames. Based on the results of this study, the demand response modification factor for the studied dual lateral load-resisting system is calculated to be in the range of 7–10.

Seismic Performance of Gravity Retaining Walls Considering the Passive Soil at the Front Side

There are many reasons to make behavior and performance of retaining walls during earthquakes difficult to evaluate, for example complex response of soil under dynamic loads, insufficiency of pseudo-static analyses, and the necessity for dynamic analyses. In recent years, progressive attention to the concept of performance-based design alleviated the situation and seismic displacement of retaining walls has got a critical role in the designing process of these structures. Furthermore, to economize the process of seismic design and reduce uncertainties coupled with pseudo-static methods, establishing a relationship between these methods and performance-based approaches provides a valuable tool for designers of geotechnical structures. In the present paper, by focusing on gravity walls and establishing applicable curves, relationships between the pseudo-static factor of safety, seismic coefficient, and seismic displacement have been investigated. In order to achieve this goal, the upper bound of limit analysis and integral of Newmark have been used. The height of the soil in the front of wall has been introduced as a design parameter. Fourteen selected Iran’s earthquake records have been implemented in the process of analyses. The proposed curves can be used to determine the required embedment of a wall in the front soil and also for estimating the corresponding seismic displacement for specific values of the seismic coefficient and factor of safety. Using the charts presented in this paper, it can be inferred that for a particular factor of safety (FS), greater values of seismic coefficient (kh) provide smaller seismic displacements, and also, in greater values of kh, the difference between values of seismic displacement of various FS will get close. Furthermore, for a certain kh, increasing FS generates decreasing seismic displacements.

Comparison of Pushover Method and Direct Displacement Method in Earthquake Load Analysis with Performance-Based Design Concepts

The development of earthquake-resistant building designs led to developing an analysis method for earthquake loads, one of the performance-based methods. This method uses structural displacement as an approach. The purpose of this analysis method was to guarantee the structure's performance so that it will be able to withstand forces due to earthquake loads. In this paper, an analysis of a building structure's design was more reliable with applicable regulations in Indonesia and determined building performance based on FEMA 356. The study was carried out using the direct displacement method and the pushover analysis method, with the displacement targets and structure performance levels being compared with each other. Based on these results, it can conclude that the use of the direct displacement method and pushover analysis can produce almost the same displacement target values and structure performance levels. Comparison using pushover analysis design performance targets can be fulfilled so that the Direct Displacement Based Design Method can be used in structures. The total displacement value of the x-x (δT) direction is 0.300 m, and the y-y course is 0.115 m.

Integration of advances in sustainable technologies for the development of the Sustainable Building Assessment Tool

The construction sector is a resource-driven and resource-dependent industry. A rising global interest to incorporate sustainability principles in the policy-making means a careful balancing of economic growth with sustainability. To achieve this end in the Indian building sector, a triple-bottom-line-based building assessment tool like GRIHA and IGBC was introduced for assessing building sustainability. However, to revitalize the ideas of Reduce, Replace, Reuse, Recycle and Renovate (the ‘5Rs’) into implementable solutions, the technological dimension is introduced to form a quadruple bottom line (QBL) approach, i.e., social, environmental, economic and technological (SEET), for achieving sustainable construction. This study aims to address the necessity to add a new dimension, viz. technological advances in the sustainability arena of the construction industry. The objective of the study is to include technological advances in building materials, construction processes and techniques and design philosophies in the developed SBAT framework. In this extended and upgraded SBAT 2.0, advances in sustainability (AS) criterion accounts for 11.5 per cent showing its significance in achieving building sustainability. The use of discrete reinforcement, additive manufacturing, 3D printing, design based on packing density and rheological properties of concrete, use of alkali-activated materials in the mix-design and performance-based design concepts that affect future sustainability are successfully brought into the fold of SBAT framework.