Concentrations Of Pharmaceutical Compounds Research Articles

Removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from hospital wastewater using constructed wetlands: a review.

AbstractPharmaceutical compounds are a significant source of environmental pollution, particularly in hospital wastewater, which contains high concentrations of such compounds. Constructed wetlands have emerged as a promising approach to removing pharmaceutical compounds from wastewater. This paper aims to review the current state of knowledge on the removal of pharmaceutical compounds from hospital wastewater using constructed wetlands, including the mechanism of removal, removal efficiency, and future prospects. Pharmaceutical contaminants have been considered to be one of the most emerging pollutants in recent years. In this review article, various studies on constructed wetlands are incorporated in order to remove the pharmaceutical contaminants. The nature of constructed wetland can be explained by understanding the types of constructed wetland, characteristics of hospital wastewater, removal mechanism, and removal efficiency. The results of the review indicate that constructed wetlands are effective in removing pharmaceutical compounds from hospital wastewater. The removal mechanism of these compounds involves a combination of physical, chemical, and biological processes, including adsorption, degradation, and uptake by wetland plants. The removal efficiency of constructed wetlands varies depending on several factors, including the type and concentration of pharmaceutical compounds, the design of the wetland system, and the environmental conditions. Further research is necessary to optimize the performance of these systems, particularly in the removal of emerging contaminants, to ensure their effectiveness and long-term sustainability.

A systematic review on the current situation of emerging pollutants in Mexico: A perspective on policies, regulation, detection, and elimination in water and wastewater

Emerging pollutants (EPs) emerged as a group of new compounds whose presence in the environment has been widely detected in Mexico. In this country, different concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds, pesticides, dyes, and microplastics have been reported, which vary depending on the region and the analyzed matrix (i.e., wastewater, surface water, groundwater). The evidence of the EPs' presence focuses on the detection of them, but there is a gap in information regarding is biomonitoring and their effects in health in Mexico. The presence of these pollutants in the country associated with lack of proper regulations in the discharge and disposal of EPs. Therefore, this review aims to provide a comprehensive view of the current environmental status, policies, and frameworks regarding Mexico's situation. The review also highlights the lack of information about biomonitoring since EPs are present in water even after their treatment, leading to a critical situation, which is high exposure to humans and animals. Although, technologies to efficiently eliminate EPs are available, their application has been reported only at a laboratory scale thus far. Here, an overview of health and environmental impacts and a summary of the research works reported in Mexico from 2014 to 2023 were presented. This review concludes with a concrete point of view and perspective on the status of the EPs' research in Mexico as an alert for government entities about the necessity of measures to control the EPs disposal and treatment.

Insights into Recent Advances of Biomaterials Based on Microbial Biomass and Natural Polymers for Sustainable Removal of Pharmaceuticals Residues.

Pharmaceuticals are acknowledged as emerging contaminants in water resources. The concentration of pharmaceutical compounds in the environment has increased due to the rapid development of the pharmaceutical industry, the increasing use of human and veterinary drugs, and the ineffectiveness of conventional technologies to remove pharmaceutical compounds from water. The application of biomaterials derived from renewable resources in emerging pollutant removal techniques constitutes a new research direction in the field. In this context, the article reviews the literature on pharmaceutical removal from water sources using microbial biomass and natural polymers in biosorption or biodegradation processes. Microorganisms, in their active or inactive form, natural polymers and biocomposites based on inorganic materials, as well as microbial biomass immobilized or encapsulated in polymer matrix, were analyzed in this work. The review examines the benefits, limitations, and drawbacks of employing these biomaterials, as well as the prospects for future research and industrial implementation. From these points of view, current trends in the field are clearly reviewed. Finally, this study demonstrated how biocomposites made of natural polymers and microbial biomass suggest a viable adsorbent biomaterial for reducing environmental pollution that is also efficient, inexpensive, and sustainable.

Exploring the correlations between epi indicators of COVID-19 and the concentration of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Portugal

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus led to changes in the lifestyle and human behaviour, which resulted in different consumption patterns of some classes of pharmaceuticals including curative, symptom-relieving, and psychotropic drugs. The trends in the consumption of these compounds are related to their concentrations in wastewater systems, since incompletely metabolised drugs (or their metabolites back transformed into the parental form) may be detected and quantified by analytical methods.Pharmaceuticals are highly recalcitrant compounds and conventional activated sludge processes implemented in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are ineffective at degrading these substances. As a results, these compounds end up in waterways or accumulate in the sludge, being a serious concern given their potential effects on ecosystems and public health. Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the presence of pharmaceuticals in water and sludge to assist in the search for more effective processes. In this work, eight pharmaceuticals from five therapeutic classes were analysed in wastewater and sludge samples collected in two WWTP located in the Northern Portugal, during the third COVID-19 epidemic wave in Portugal. The two WWTP demonstrated a similar pattern with respect to the concentration levels in that period. However, the drugs loads reaching each WWTP were dissimilar when normalising the concentrations to the inlet flow rate. Acetaminophen (ACET) was the compound detected at highest concentrations in aqueous samples of both WWTP (98. 516 μg L − 1 in WWTP2 and 123. 506 μg L − 1in WWTP1), indicating that this drug is extensively used without the need of a prescription, known of general public knowledge as an antipyretic and analgesic agent to treat pain and fever. The concentrations determined in the sludge samples were below 1.65 µg g − 1 in both WWTP, the highest value being found for azithromycin (AZT). This result may be justified by the physico-chemical characteristics of the compound that favour its adsorption to the sludge surface through ionic interactions. It was not possible to establish a clear relationship between the incidence of COVID-19 cases in the sewer catchment and the concentration of drugs detected in the same period. However, looking at the data obtained, the high incidence of COVID-19 in January 2021 is in line with the high concentration of drugs detected in the aqueous and sludge samples but prediction of drug load from viral load data was unfeasible.

Exploring the Correlations between EPI Indicators of COVID-19 and the Concentration of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Northern Portugal

Exploring the Correlations between EPI Indicators of COVID-19 and the Concentration of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Northern Portugal

Exploring the Correlations between EPI Indicators of COVID-19 and the Concentration of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Northern Portugal

Exploring the Correlations between EPI Indicators of COVID-19 and the Concentration of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Northern Portugal

Use of groundwater and reclaimed water for agricultural irrigation: Farmers’ practices and attitudes and related environmental and health risks

Agricultural reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) for irrigation is widely practiced. Its conjunctive use with freshwater is becoming more common to guarantee food security, while the rationale behind and its sustainability are quite arguable. The objective of this study is to better understand the drivers of the conjunctive use of TWW and groundwater (GW) in Nabeul region, Tunisia, and the potential environmental and health impacts taking into account farmers' practices and attitudes toward reuse. TWW used for irrigation exhibited relatively high salinity and high microbiological load. GW has a very high salinity. TWW and GW showed low concentrations of heavy metals (Al, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn). Concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds were between Limits of Quantification and 13 μg/L. In GW, values were relatively high, especially for caffeine, carbamazepine, ofloxacin, and ketoprofen. Farmers have a low perception of the polluting load of TWW and GW and of their potential long-term impacts on agricultural environment, human health, and agricultural productivity. GW availability has facilitated its conjunctive use with TWW, either to augment water quantity and/or to improve its quality. Despite its low quality, GW timeliness for irrigation was the main driver to guarantee a better yield and quality of produces. Soil microbial community, bacterial biomass, denitrifying potential and carbon oxidation profiles were similar under TWW, GW and their conjunctive use. Though an effect of the sampling period was observed with a high abundance of denitrifying bacteria in the wet season and a low carbon oxidation activity at the end of the dry season. The conjunctive use of TWW and GW is very likely unsustainable from health and environmental perspectives. Balancing farmers’ economic profit against the preservation of agricultural activity, linked to cultural and natural heritage, remains one of the challenges for decision-makers and regional stakeholders.

Assessment of Trametes versicolor, Isochrysis galbana, and Purple Phototrophic Bacteria for the Removal of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Hospital Wastewater

Hospitals are one of the key contributors of pharmaceutical contaminants of emerging concern to the sewer systems. Hospitals wastewaters contain concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds between 3 and 150, which are higher than urban wastewater streams. However, dedicated treatments of the hospital effluents before discharge to the sewer system are not compulsory. Besides, conventional wastewater treatment plants have not been designed to remove pharmaceutical compounds effectively, and consequently, these micropollutants can reach the aquatic ecosystems. The removal of pharmaceutical compounds in real hospital wastewater was gaged using three different microbial cultures (white rot-fungus Trametes versicolor, microalga Isochrysis galbana, and a mixed culture of non-sulfur purple phototrophic bacteria). Before and after bioassays of the hospital wastewater, environmental hazard quotients were used to evaluate the biological treatment efficiency. Up to 45 out of the 79 compounds included in the analytical method were noticed in the hospital wastewater, with a predominance of analgesics/anti-inflammatories (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen). It was followed by antibiotics (azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin, out of which the first two are included in the watch list of substances for monitoring in water in 2020) and anti-hypertensive drugs. Isochrysis galbana reached a reduction of 45% of the total concentration of pharmaceuticals, whereas Trametes versicolor and mixed culture of purple phototrophic bacteria improved the reductions up to 69% and 76%, respectively. Moreover, potential environmental risk compounds (antibiotics, particularly ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin) were removed by Trametes versicolor in higher extension, obtaining a total hazard quotient reduction higher than the other two cultures. Removal efficiency and environmental risk assessment of remaining PhACs were used to evaluate the performance of the new biological systems for the treatment of emerging pollutants. According to both criteria, T. versicolor seems the most capable alternative for removing pharmaceutical compounds in hospital wastewater effluents.

Diclofenac and caffeine inhibit hepatic antioxidant enzymes in the freshwater fish Astyanax altiparanae (Teleostei: Characiformes)

Although concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds in aquatic ecosystems are low, they can cause toxic effects on organisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of diclofenac (DCF), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, and caffeine (CAF), a central nervous system stimulant, both alone or combined, in Astyanax altiparanae males under acute exposure (96 h), measuring neurotoxicity biomarkers, antioxidant response and damage at biochemical and cellular levels. DCF concentration in water, separated and combined, was 3.08 mg L−1 and that of CAF was 9.59 mg L−1. To assess neurotoxicity, brain and muscle acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities were measured. To evaluate oxidative stress, the enzymatic activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), as well as lipoperoxidation (LPO), were analyzed in liver and gills. Activity of hepatic cyclooxygenase (COX) was also evaluated. Genotoxicity was assessed in blood using comet assay and micronucleus test, as well as nuclear abnormalities. DCF and CAF, alone or combined, had neither effect on AChE activity, nor in the activity of SOD, CAT, GPx and GST in gills. In liver, DCF inhibited SOD and GPx activity, CAF inhibited CAT activity, the mixture inhibited SOD and GST activity; although only fish exposed to CAF showed increased hepatic LPO. Under these experimental conditions, no effect on COX activity was observed, nor cytotoxic and genotoxic damage. The most pronounced effects were caused by the drugs separately, since both compounds altered the enzymes, but only CAF triggered LPO, showing more harmful effects.

Removal of pharmaceuticals from municipal wastewaters at laboratory scale by treatment with activated sludge and biostimulation.

Municipal wastewater containing 21 pharmaceutical compounds, as well as activated sludge obtained from the aeration tank of the same wastewater treatment plant were used in lab-scale biodegradation experiments. The concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry and ranged from 13.2ng/L to 51.8μg/L. Activated sludge was characterized in the terms of phylogenetic and catabolic diversity of microbial community, as well as its morphology. Proteobacteria (24.0%) represented the most abundant phylum, followed by Bacteroidetes (19.8%) and Firmicutes (13.2%). Bioaugmentation of wastewater with activated sludge stimulated the biodegradation process for 14 compounds. The concentration of carbamazepine in non-amended and bioaugmented WW decreased during the first 17h up to 30% and 70%, respectively. Diclofenac and ibuprofen demonstrated comparatively slow removal. The stimulating effect of the added nutrients was observed for the degradation of almost all pharmaceuticals detected in WW. The most pronounced effect of nutrients was found for erythromycin. The results were compared with those obtained for the full-scale WW treatment process.

Behavior of pharmaceuticals in UV photoreactors fed with sewage treated by anaerobic/aerobic system

ABSTRACTThis work has assessed the seasonal changes and the dynamics in the concentration of six pharmaceutical compounds during photolysis as a tertiary treatment of sewage previously treated by an anaerobic/aerobic system comprising a UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactor and a trickling filter (TF). The target compounds were four antibiotics (ciprofloxacin (CPF), clindamycin (CLM), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and trimetoprim), one β-blocker (atenolol), and one anti-inflammatory (diclofenac (DCF)). Six hydraulic retention times (HRTs) were evaluated (5, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 min) with the intent of varying the ultraviolet C (UVC) radiation doses applied to the effluent from biological treatment containing the target contaminants. The concentrations of pharmaceutical compounds in the effluent of the UASB/TF system were in agreement with the concentration levels reported in the literature. Aside from DCF, the seasonality seems to be a preponderant characteristic regarding the pharmaceutical concentration found in the effluent of biological treatment systems. The radiation dose of 117 mJ cm−2 seemed to be most suited for the photolysis application to tertiary treatment of domestic effluents. It was observed that lower UVC doses led to deconjugation of pharmaceuticals, which can result in increased concentrations of target pollutants in the photoreactor effluent.

Ecological risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in the receiving environment of pharmaceutical wastewater in Pakistan

The pharmaceutical industry of Pakistan is growing with an annual growth rate of 10%. Besides this growth, this industry is not complying with environmental standards, and discharging its effluent into domestic wastewater network. Only limited information is available about the occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) in the environmental matrices of Pakistan that has motivated us to aim at the occurrence and ecological risk assessment of 11 PCs of different therapeutic classes in the wastewater of pharmaceutical industry and in its receiving environmental matrices such as sludge, solid waste and soil samples near the pharmaceutical formulation units along Shiekhupura road, Lahore, Pakistan. Target PCs (paracetamol, naproxen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, amlodipine, rosuvastatin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, sparfloxacin and gemifloxacin) were quantified using in-house developed HPLC-UV. Ibuprofen (1673µg/L, 6046µg/kg, 1229µg/kg and 610µg/kg), diclofenac (836µg/L, 4968µg/kg, 6632µg/kg and 257µg/kg) and naproxen (464µg/L, 7273µg/kg, 4819µg/kg and 199µg/kg) showed the highest concentrations among 11 target PCs in wastewater, sludge, solid waste and soil samples, respectively. Ecological risk assessment, in terms of risk quotient (RQ), was also carried out based on the maximum measured concentration of PCs in wastewater. The maximum RQ values obtained were with paracetamol (64 against daphnia), naproxen (177 against fish), diclofenac (12,600 against Oncorhynchus mykiss), ibuprofen (167,300 against Oryzias latipes), ofloxacin (81,000 against Pseudomonas putida) and ciprofloxacin (440 against Microcystis aeruginosa). These results show a high level of ecological risk due to the discharge of untreated wastewater from pharmaceutical units. This risk may further lead to food web contamination and drug resistance in pathogens. Thus, further studies are needed to detect the PCs in crops as well as the government should strictly enforce environmental legislation on these pharmaceutical units.

Removal rates of antibiotics in four sewage treatment plants in South India.

The occurrence and removal of seven selected pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) in sewage treatment plants (STPs) in South India were investigated. The PCs selected for this study were sulfamethoxazole (SMX), trimethoprim (TMP), chloramphenicol (CAP), erythromycin (ERY), naproxen (NPX), bezafibrate (BZF), and ampicillin (AMP). Wastewater samples were collected from inlet and outlet of the STPs during pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons to investigate the seasonal influences in occurrence and removal rates. The analytical method was based on simultaneous extraction of all target compounds by solid phase extraction (SPE), using a hydrophilic-lipophilic-balanced (HLB) sorbent followed by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The STP that catered exclusively to domestic wastewater had lesser concentrations of PCs compared to the STPs serving the combined hospital and domestic effluents. SMX was the dominant compound in all effluents with the highest concentration at 3.2μg/L in the outlet of an STP. TMP and ERY were the other PCs present at higher concentrations in STP outlets (1μg/L and 0-0.13μg/L, respectively). Removal rates varied from 100% for BZF to 60-100% for SMX, CTX, and AMP.

Insights into the uptake processes of wastewater-borne pharmaceuticals by vegetables.

An increasing number of reports on plant uptake of pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) have been recently published, raising concerns of human exposure through dietary intake. In this study, PC uptake and translocation were evaluated in cucumber and tomato plants to elucidate the effects of PC physicochemical properties, soil type, and irrigation-water quality. Nonionic PCs were taken up and accumulated at higher levels in plants grown in soils of lower organic matter and clay content. While the concentration of most PCs in cucumber and tomato leaves were of similar order, their concentrations in the tomato fruit were much lower than in the cucumber fruit. This is related to differences in fruit physiology. Our data suggest that irrigation with treated wastewater reduces the bioavailability of acidic PCs for uptake by cucumber plants as compared to fresh water irrigation. This study sheds light on factors affecting the uptake of PCs by crops irrigated with treated wastewater, the governing role of PCs' physicochemical properties along with the physiological nature of the plant, soil properties and water quality that together determine uptake, translocation, and accumulation within plant organs. Occurrence of metabolites in plant suggests that PC metabolism has to be evaluated to reveal the total uptake.

Fate of Pharmaceutical and Trace Organic Compounds in Three Septic System Plumes, Ontario, Canada

Three high volume septic systems in Ontario, Canada, were examined to assess the potential for onsite wastewatertreatment systems to release pharmaceutical compounds to the environment and to evaluate the mobility of these compounds in receiving aquifers. Wastewater samples were collected from the septic tanks, and groundwater samples were collected below and down gradient of the infiltration beds and analyzed for a suite of commonly used pharmaceutical and trace organic compounds. The septic tank samples contained elevated concentrations of several pharmaceutical compounds. Ten of the 12 compounds analyzed were detected in groundwater at one or more sites at concentrations in the low ng L(-1) to low microg L(-1) range. Large differences among the sites were observed in both the number of detections and the concentrations of the pharmaceutical compounds. Of the compounds analyzed, ibuprofen, gemfibrozil, and naproxen were observed to be transported atthe highest concentrations and greatest distances from the infiltration source areas, particularly in anoxic zones of the plumes.