Divinylbenzene Content Research Articles

Polymerization of Sodium 4-Styrenesulfonate Inside Filter Paper via Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma

This work explores the polymerization of sodium 4-styrenesulfonate (NaSS) inside filter paper using dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma and its application in the environmental field. The plasma-based technique, performed under mild conditions, solves common problems associated with conventional polymerization inside porous materials. The polymerization process was monitored using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, which confirmed the consumption of double bonds, particularly in NaSS samples containing the optimal concentration of crosslinker divinyl benzene (DVB) (0.25% wt). Our work demonstrates the effectiveness and promise of DBD plasma as a substitute polymerization approach, especially for those in porous materials.

Roles of Divinylbenzene Co‐Cross‐Linker in a Threefold Cross‐Linked Polystyrene–Phosphine Hybrid Monolith: Impact of Cross‐linking Degree on Catalytic Performance

AbstractContinuous‐flow organic transformations using immobilized catalysts are crucial for green and sustainable chemistry. Cross‐linked polymer ligands offer high stability, ease of recovery through filtration, and thus enhance performance in continuous‐flow reactions via transition‐metal catalysis. Additionally, the cross‐linking structure of the polymer support creates a unique reaction platform that controls the coordination behavior of the supported ligands and stabilizes the metal catalysts. However, insights into the material‐based design for preparing highly active and durable immobilized metal catalysts are still limited. In this report, we propose a straightforward approach to boost both selective mono‐coordination and effective stabilization of metal complexes. We developed threefold cross‐linked polystyrene‐triphenylphosphine hybrid monoliths with cross‐linking structures adjusted by varying the content of divinylbenzene as co‐cross‐linker. The coordination behaviors and metal‐support interactions of these monoliths were evaluated, highlighting the importance of co‐cross‐linker content in site‐isolating phosphine units and stabilizing metal centers via arene‐metal interactions on the polystyrene network. By optimizing the cross‐linking structure, the monolith catalysts demonstrated exceptionally high catalytic activity and durability in Pd‐catalyzed C−Cl transformations, such as Suzuki–Miyaura cross‐couplings and Buchwald‐Hartwig aminations in continuous flow. This underscores the utility of our monolith system in challenging transition‐metal catalysis.

Synthesis and Porous Structure Characteristics of Allyl Methacrylate/Divinylbenzene Polymers

A set of six porous copolymers of allyl methacrylate (AllMeth) and divinylbenzene (DVB), containing 5 to 50 wt% of the latter crosslinker, are synthesized by suspension polymerization method in the presence of inert diluents. Obtained polymers have various specific surface areas—those with 20 to 50 wt% of DVB have a high surface area in the range of 410–480 m2/g, depending only slightly on the amount of the aromatic crosslinker. Specific surface area decreases strongly only when DVB content is 15 and 5 wt%. That is the feature that is unusual for crosslinked polymers and indicates the participation of allyl groups in making a novel polymeric network of high porosity. All polymers contain polar carbonyl groups, with an electron pair able to interact with polar sorbates. Polymers are characterized using elemental analysis, FTIR, and their porous structure is characterized by nitrogen adsorption at 77 K. All polymers contain residual allyl groups, which possibly can serve as convenient points for chemical modification, allowing for the future synthesis of specialty polymers (such as ion-exchangers and coordinating resins).

Modulation of Free Carbon Structures in Polysiloxane-Derived Ceramics for Anode Materials in Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Polymer-derived silicon oxycarbide (SiOC) ceramics have garnered significant attention as novel silicon-based anode materials. However, the low conductivity of SiOC ceramics is a limiting factor, reducing both their rate capability and cycling stability. Therefore, controlling the free carbon content and its degree of graphitization within SiOC is crucial for determining battery performance. In this study, we regulated the free carbon content using divinylbenzene (DVB) and controlled the graphitization of free carbon with the transition metal iron (Fe). Through a simple pyrolysis process, we synthesized SiOC ceramic materials (CF) and investigated the impact of Fe-induced changes in the carbon phase and the amorphous SiOC phase on the comprehensive electrochemical performance. The results demonstrated that increasing the DVB content in the SiOC precursor enhanced the free carbon content, while the addition of Fe promoted the graphitization of free carbon and induced the formation of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The electrochemical performance results showed that the CF electrode material exhibited a high reversible capacity of approximately 1154.05 mAh g-1 at a low current density of 100 mA g-1 and maintained good rate capability and cycling stability after 1000 cycles at a high current density of 2000 mA g-1.

Preparation of porous imidazole-based poly(ionic liquid) adsorbents and their toluene adsorption performance.

Efficient, economical, and durable adsorbents are required to remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air. Cross-linked polyvinylic ionic liquids (PVIC) with porous structures were synthesized by quaternizing 1-vinylimidazole (1VI) with 1-bromobutane to obtain 3-butyl-1-vinylimidazolium bromide (VIC), which was then co-polymerized with divinylbenzene (DVB) radicals. 1H NMR, 13C NMR, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms were applied in characterizing the composites. Through modification of the polymer structure by adjustment of DVB concentration（the ratio of DVB concentration to VIC concentration was x: 1 (x=0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0) and the product was named PVIC-s (s=2, 3, 4, 5)）, the optimal PVIC-4 pore structure was obtained, with a specific surface area and total pore volume of 192.5 m2 g-1 and 0.192 cm3 g-1, respectively. A toluene adsorption test verified the adsorption capacity. The adsorption behavior for VOCs, based on toluene, was investigated using adsorption breakthrough curves, adsorption kinetics, and isotherms. The adsorption process is well describing by the Bangham kinetic and Langmuir isotherm models. The dynamic adsorption of toluene followed the order PVIC-4 > PVIC-5 > PVIC-3 > PVIC-2. The optimum toluene adsorption by PVIC-4 was 264.4 mg g-1 as a result of its excellent pore structure. PVIC-4 also performed well in terms of recovery and has potential for the removal of VOCs from air.

Synthesis of polyacrylate-divinylbenzene hydroxamic resins and its gallium adsorption performance in sulfuric acid solution

In this study, the adsorption behavior of gallium ions on a synthesized hydroxamic acid resin from sulfuric acid solution was investigated, aiming to recover Ga directly from pressure leaching solution in zinc hydrometallurgical plant. Hydroxamic acid chelating resin (HA-PDR) was prepared by introducing hydroxamic acid groups into the pre-made polyacrylate resin (PDR) with methyl ester group through hydroxylamine reaction. Polyacrylate-divinylbenzene hydroxamic resins with a nitrogen content of up to 3.85 % were obtained at a divinylbenzene (DVB) content of 13 % and an optimal raw material ratio of NH2OH·HCl: NaOH: −CH3 = 4:4.5:1 (molar ratio). The obtained materials was characterized using FTIR, XPS and SEM to verify the successful introduction of hydroxamic acid groups. The results of adsorption experiments showed that the adsorption capacity of 27.65 mg/g could be obtained with a chemical, multilayered, and heterogeneous adsorption process, and film diffusion and intra-particle diffusion rate controlled mainly the adsorption efficiency. It has been proven that polyacrylate-divinylbenzene hydroxamic resins has extremely high adsorption selectivity for gallium in sulfuric acid solution, and the desorption effect is obvious, which can be applied promisingly in the industrial development of gallium extraction technology from zinc leaching residue in sulfuric acid system.

Nano-turbostratic carbon-decorated SiOC ceramic aerogels with ultra-broadband electromagnetic wave absorption properties

As thermal insulation-electromagnetic wave absorption (EMA) integrated materials, ceramic aerogels’ thermal properties have been extensively investigated, whereas their EMA properties have not. In this work, nano-turbostratic carbon-decorated SiOC ceramic aerogels were fabricated by pyrolyzing polysiloxane modified with divinylbenzene (DVB). Investigations were conducted into the effects of DVB content on the compositions, microstructures, and EMA properties of SiOC ceramic aerogels. Our research uncovered that SiOC ceramic aerogels contained ultrafine nano-turbostratic carbons (around 5 nm), resulting in abundant interface and defect polarizations. SiOC ceramic aerogels with excellent EMA properties at both small (<5 mm) and large (up to 40 mm) thicknesses were obtained by adjusting the DVB content. The reflection loss and effective absorption bandwidth of SiOC ceramic aerogels were -65.6 dB and 6 GHz at a sample thickness of 2.45 mm, while the effective absorption bandwidth widened to 11.2 GHz at 40 mm. The EMA mechanism of SiOC ceramic aerogels was discussed.

Low cross-linked terpenes-based porous polymers with reduced content of divinylbenzene: synthesis, physicochemical properties and sorption abilities

The low cross-linked porous polymers were prepared using terpene compounds (citral, limonene and pinene) and divinylbenzene with a suspension method. The prepared materials were characterized by: ATR-FTIR, low temperature nitrogen adsorption–desorption, TGA, swelling ratio and solid phase extraction (SPE) experiments. ATR-FTIR verified the chemical structures of the polymers. All the materials had developed internal structure with SBET in the range of 45–190 m2/g and high thermal stability. Sorption properties of the terpene-based polymers were tested for phenolic compounds (phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol) and popular non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin, paracetamol and ibuprofen) and an antibiotic (ampicillin) with a dynamic solid phase extraction (SPE) method. The recoveries of 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol remained at a level 80–100% for all new materials even for 10–13 concentration cycles. Very high recoveries (70–100%) were also obtained for ibuprofen and aspirin from the citral- and limonene-based polymers using one-component solutions. However, when using ternary component solutions, the maximum recoveries of ibuprofen reached 70%. Paracetamol recoveries did not exceed 20%, while these for ampicillin ranged from 40 to 80%. The performed studies have proven that the process is affected by both chemical nature of adsorbents and adsorbates. Especially in the case of multicomponent solutions, the acid—base balance of solutes in the solution and on the polymer—solution interface should be taken into account as an important factor determining obtained recoveries.

High temperature stable, amorphous SiBCN microwave absorption ceramics with tunable carbon structures derived from divinylbenzene crosslinked hyperbranched polyborosilazane

Currently, polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs) often achieve electromagnetic (EM) wave attenuation by in situ generation of nanocrystals. In this paper, amorphous monolithic siliconboron carbonitride (SiBCN) ceramics with outstanding microwave absorption property were prepared via pyrolysis of hyperbranched polyborosilazane crosslinked with divinylbenzene (DVB). The crosslinking of DVB increases the ceramic yield and the sp2 carbon contents, which facilitates the formation of multiple ordered carbon structures and enhances the dielectric loss and microwave absorption property of ceramics. By regulating DVB content and pyrolysis temperature, the amorphous SiBCN ceramics with ordered carbon structures exhibit optimized microwave absorption performance with a minimum reflection coefficient (RCmin) of −54.24 dB and a maximum effective absorption bandwidth (EABmax) of 3.15 GHz. Further, when the planar sample is tested using arch method, the practical RCmin value is −14.86 dB at 14.46 GHz and the EABmax is up to 6.4 GHz (11.6 GHz–18 GHz). In addition, the amorphous SiBCN has excellent high temperature resistance, no mass change in nitrogen (N2) and only 3.23% mass loss in air until 1400 °C. The high temperature stable, amorphous SiBCN microwave absorption ceramics provide a new strategy to the preparation of microwave absorption materials.

The Effect of Divinylbenzene on the Structure and Properties of Polyethylene Films with Related Radiation Chemical Grafted Polystyrene and Sulfocationite Membranes.

In the present work, the effect of divinylbenzene (DVB) on the kinetics of post-radiation chemical graft polymerization styrene (St) on polyethylene (PE) film and its structural and morphological features were investigated. It has been found that the dependence of the degree of polystyrene (PS) grafting on the DVB concentration in the solution is extreme. An increase in the rate of graft polymerization at low concentrations of DVB in the solution is associated with a decrease in the mobility of the growing chains of PS. A decrease in the rate of graft polymerization at high concentrations of DVB is associated with a decrease in the rate of diffusion of St and iron(II) ions in the cross-linked network structure of macromolecules of graft PS. A comparative analysis of the IR transmission and multiple attenuated total internal reflection spectra of the films with graft PS shows that graft polymerization of St in the presence of DVB leads to the enrichment of the film surface layers in PS. These results have been confirmed by the data on the distribution of sulfur in these films after sulfonation. The micrographs of the surface of the grafted films show the formation of cross-linked local microphases of PS with fixed interfaces.

Microscopic mechanism of distinct mechanical properties of divinylbenzene reinforced cross-linked polystyrene revealed by molecular dynamics simulations

Molecular dynamics method was employed to establish the model of three-dimensional cross-linked polystyrene (PS) formed by divinylbenzene (DVB) and PS chains. Density, radial distribution function, free volume fraction, mean square displacement of systems with different cross-linking degrees (DVB contents of 0%, 3.8%, 7.1% and 11.1%) were studied, as well as macroscopic properties such as glass transition temperature, elastic mechanical properties, uniaxial tensile deformation. The results showed that cross-linking algorithm proposed was feasible for constructing cross-linked PS. With the increase of cross-linking degree, cross-linked PS became denser, and glass transition temperature increased, indicating an increase of heat resistance. Compared with uncross-linked PS, elastic modulus of three cross-linked systems increased by 19.26%, 29.56% and 40.19%; bulk modulus increased by 2.9%, 20.98% and 44.03%; and shear modulus increased by 21.05%, 29.82% and 42.98%. Tensile stress-strain curves showed that network structure formed by adding DVB improved yield stress and tensile resistance of PS.

Influence of Benzoyl Peroxide and Divinylbenzene Concentrations on the Properties of Poly(glycidyl methacrylate‐co‐divinylbenzene) Magnetic Microspheres

AbstractIn this work, the synthesis of magnetic microspheres of poly(glycidyl methacrylate‐co‐divinylbenzene) via suspension polymerization is reported. The concentrations of divinylbenzeneand benzoyl peroxide in the microspheres synthesis are studied. The microspheres, characterized by thermal analysis , scanning electron microscopy, vibrating sample magnetometry , and light scattering detection , show good morphological control and thermal stability. This material presents a narrow size range and an appreciable fraction of superparamagnetic particles. The increase in divinylbenzene concentration can cause a decrease in the mean diameter of the microspheres. On the other hand, the increase in benzoyl peroxide concentration causes an increase in the mean diameter of the microspheres.

Preparation of aerogel-like SiOC ceramic with honeycomb structure and its high-temperature performance

Development of lightweight ceramic aerogel with enhanced thermal insulation and high temperature resistance is required in the field of thermal insulation. Here, a aerogel-like SiOC ceramic with honeycomb structure was prepared by solvothermal method using polyhydromethylsiloxane (PHMS) as precursor and divinylbenzene (DVB) as cross-linker followed by freeze-drying and pyrolysis. The pore size and homogeneity of the honeycomb structure could be further controlled by the content of DVB through adjusting the crosslinking degree of the PSO wet gel. The aerogel-like SiOC possessing uniform honeycomb structure with the pore size of 20–50 µm and the wall thickness of 3–6 µm is obtained at the mass ratio of DVB:PHMS of 2:1. The aerogel-like SiOC exhibits low density (0.14 g·cm−3) and low thermal conductivity (0.0577 W·m−1·K−1). Moreover, it maintains the honeycomb structure after high temperature treatment at 1400 °C in argon and 800 °C in air indicating its good thermal stability. This work provides a novel route for the preparation of the aerogel-like SiOC ceramic with honeycomb structure and designable overall performance, further expanding its application in thermal insulation.

Design and Self-Assembly of Polyhedron Particles to Construct Iridescent Structural Colors.

Polyhedron particles exhibit unique physical properties in constructing novel materials. Here, the polystyrene (PS) polyhedron particles were fabricated via dispersion polymerization, and their morphologies can be controlled by tuning the divinylbenzene (DVB) content and polarity of the reaction medium. The possible formation mechanism is the asymmetric distribution of cross-linked networks during the phase separation process. In addition, the large-scale iridescent structural colors based on polyhedrons were obtained and further explored their applications in smart displays. This presented method guides the fabrication of anisotropic particles and their further assembly to construct novel materials.

Enhanced piezoresistivity of polymer-derived SiCN ceramics by regulating divinylbenzene-induced free carbon

In-situ formed free carbon nanodomain is an unique feature of polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs), which plays a significant role to affect the properties of PDCs, especially for the electoral property and piezoresistivity. In this study we report an enhanced piezoresistive properties of amorphous silicon carbonitrides (SiCN) ceramics derived by divinylbenzene (DVB)-modified polysilazane. Microstructure analysis indicated that the free carbon phase in SiCN ceramics is gradually increasing in order degree and concentration with increasing content of DVB. The average spacing between the conducting particles decreases with increasing concentration of free carbon, resulting in an enhanced internal electric field. The effects of DVB concentration on the piezoresistive properties of SiCN ceramics are also discussed, finding that the DVB has a significant effect on the piezoresistive properties.

A SiCN Thin Film Thermistor Based on DVB Modified Polymer-Derived Ceramics.

Carbon-rich SiCN ceramics were prepared by divinylbenzene (DVB)-modified polysilazane (PSN2), and a high-conductivity SiCN thin film sensor suitable for medium-low temperature sensing was fabricated. The modified liquid precursors were patterned by direct ink writing to produce SiCN resistive grids with line widths of several hundreds of micrometers and thicknesses of several micrometers. The introduction of DVB not only increases the critical thickness of SiCN ceramics several times, but also significantly improves the conductivity of SiCN, making it meet the conductivity requirements of sensing applications in the mid-low temperature range. The electrical conductivity and microstructure of DVB-modified SiCN ceramics were studied in detail. In the temperature range of 30~400 °C, the temperature resistance performance of DVB modified SiCN resistance grid was measured. The SiCN ceramics with low DVB content not only have excellent electrical conductivity, but also have good oxidation resistance.

Correlation of the organic sorbents texture with chromatographic characteristics of monolithic HPLC columns based on 1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone

Monolithic sorbents based on styrene/divinylbenzene/1-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone copolymer have been synthesized inside the glass tubes with the inner diameter of 2 mm. The effect of the porogenic solvent nature and divinylbenzene content on the textural and chromatographic properties of sorbents was studied. Polypropylene glycol with the molecular weight 2025 g/mol and triblock copolymer Pluronic 10R5 (poly(propylene glycol)-block-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(propylene glycol)) with the molecular weight 2000 g/mol were found to be the most suitable porogenic solvents. The fraction of divinylbenzene in the initial polymerization mixture was shown to affect the textural characteristics of sorbents (specific surface area, pore size and volume). The dependence of hydrodynamic permeability and columns loading capacity on divinylbenzene content in the initial reaction mixture was elucidated. Separation examples for the prepared columns are given.

The Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate from Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate in the Presence of Strongly Basic Anion-Exchange Styrene-Divinylbenzene Anionites Dowex

The synthesis of glycerol carbonate from glycerol and dimethyl carbonate in the presence of strongly basic styrene-divinylbenzene anionites Dowex 1×2, Dowex 1×4 and Dowex 1×8 in the –OH form with different cross-linking degree of polystyrene matrix (the divinylbenzene content of 2, 4 and 8 wt.%) at 90–105 °C and a dimethyl carbonate/glycerol molar ratio equal to 2 was studied. The yield of glycerol carbonate was shown to decrease with an increase in the cross-linking degree of the anion-exchange resin. The maximum conversion of glycerol (95 %) and selectivity to glycerol carbonate (45.5 %) were observed in the presence of Dowex 1×2 at 105 °C after 5 h of the reaction. Advantages of the studied systems were demonstrated in comparison with the anion-exchange and cationexchange resins proposed in the literature.

Sulfonated polyvinylidene fluoride-crosslinked-aniline-2-sulfonic acid as ion exchange membrane in single-chambered microbial fuel cell

A novel interpenetrating polymeric network (IPN) of sulfonated polyvinylidene fluoride (SPVDF), nano-alumina (Al2O3), and aniline-2-sulfonic (A2S) acid with crosslinker divinylbenzene (DVB) is employed as an ion-exchange membrane in single-chambered microbial fuel cells (MFCs). Results reveal that the increasing concentration of A2S (10, 20, and 30 wt%) enhances the relative hydrophilicity and other intrinsic properties of the membranes. A series of characterizations like water uptake, swelling ratio, ion-exchange, proton conductivity, and tensile testing, affirms the enhanced attributes of the casted membranes. The increasing concentration of crosslinker DVB (> 1.4 wt%) constricts the internal spacing of the membrane that, in turn, hinders the transverse ionic conduction within the highly crosslinked, AS30 membrane. A maximum power and current density of 450.36 ± 23mW m-2 and 1734 ± 87mA m-2 was found in AS20 fitted MFC with around 89% of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal in 30 days of operation. Incorporation of A2S and Al2O3 in SPVDF moiety demonstrates an approximate increment of 36% and 7% higher MFC performance over n-SPVDF and highly crosslinked AS30 membrane. The relative effect of these novel IPN membranes has been highlighted here as cost-efficient separator in MFCs for green electricity production, employing mixed firmicutes as biocatalyst.

Single-source-precursor synthesis of porous W-containing SiC-based nanocomposites as hydrogen evolution reaction electrocatalysts

In this paper, W-containing SiC-based ceramic nanocomposites were successfully prepared by a polymer-derived ceramic approach using allylhydridopolycarbosilane (AHPCS) as a SiC source, WCl6 as a tungsten source, polystyrene (PS) as a pore forming agent as well as divinyl benzene (DVB) as a carbon rich source. High-temperature phase behavior of the W-containing SiC-based ceramics after heat treatment was studied, showing that excessive DVB content in the feed will inhibit the crystallinity of W-containing nanoparticles in the final ceramic nanocomposites. The high specific surface area (SSA) of 169.4–276.9 m2/g can be maintained even at high temperature in the range of 1400–1500 °C, due to the carbothermal reaction which usually occurs between 1300 and 1400 °C. All prepared W-containing SiC-based nanocomposites reveal electrocatalytic activity for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). In detail, compared with reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE), the ceramic sample PWA-2-1300 after heat treatment at 1300 °C has the smallest overpotential of 286 mV when the current density is 10 mA·cm−2 in acid medium, indicating the promising perspective in the water splitting field.