Palm Oil Mill Effluent Concentration Research Articles

Evaluation of Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Tetradesmus bernardii for Cultivation and Nutrient Removal in Palm Oil Mill Effluent

The palm oil industry is one of the key players in contributing to Malaysia’s economy. Palm oil mill effluent (POME), a significant by-product of the oil extraction process, requires mandatory remediation to ensure proper treatment and disposal. Bioremediation using microalgae is a cost-effective and sustainable approach. This study aims to utilise pure and mixed microalgal species, Chlorella vulgaris and Tetradesmus bernardii, in phycoremediation and biomass production in different concentrations of POME (20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%). Cultivation of microalgae was carried out in 200 mL medium with pH 7–7.8, room temperature of 25±1°C for 21 days and continuous light illumination at 2000 lux. The highest biomass productivity was observed in 20% POME for mixed microalgae (mean = 0.1733 mg.mL-1 ± 0.0057), followed by C. vulgaris (0.1633 mg.mL-1 ± 0.0057) and T. bernardii (0.1603 mg.mL-1 ± 0.0020). Similarly, the highest nutrient removal was observed in 20% POME for mixed microalgae (COD:66.9801%, TN:86.9565%, TP:86.9655%), followed by C. vulgaris and T. bernardii. The results showed positive effects on growth, increased biomass production, and nutrient removal, with 20% POME being the optimal concentration for microalgae. Valuable by-products, such as high-quality pigments and biomass, are also generated by applying microalgae for remediation. Mixed microalgae are superior in the remediation of POME compared to single-culture algae. Treating wastewater through microalgal bioremediation is highly efficient in nutrient removal. This research has contributed towards the use of mixed microalgae to achieve effective nutrient removal and biomass for future industrial applications.

Unlocking the potential of Chlamydomonas sp. for sustainable nutrient removal from POME: A biokinetic investigation

This study aimed to assess the capability of Chlamydomonas sp., for the treatment of palm oil mill effluent (POME), with a particular focus on nutrient removal efficacy. Batch cultivation experiments were conducted using Chlamydomonas sp. in bold basal medium (BBM) with varying POME concentrations. Biokinetic coefficients for nutrient removal were determined using the Michaelis-Menten equation. Over 16 days, Chlamydomonas sp. efficiently removed 100 % of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3−), 66–89 % of phosphate (PO43−), and 16.7–33.2 % of chemical oxygen demand (COD). Experimental results and biokinetic coefficients highlighted the superior removal of NH4+ and PO43− by Chlamydomonas sp. in POME. For NH4+, the determined coefficients were k = 3.7161 mg NH4+ mg−1 DCW d−1, Km = 217.97 mg L−1, YN = 17.64 mg DCW mg−1 NH4+. For PO43−, the coefficients were k = 2.5413 mg PO43− mg−1 DCW d−1, Km = 131.53 mg L−1, YP = 12.91 mg DCW mg−1 PO43−. Chlamydomonas sp. biomass performed exceptionally well under low NH4+ and PO43− concentrations, requiring minimal nutrient input compared to COD and NO3−. In conclusion, Chlamydomonas sp. shows promise as an efficient and sustainable option for nutrient removal from POME and other wastewater sources, particularly those containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphate.

Characterization and optimization of Rhodotorula toruloides and Ankistrodesmus falcatus co-culture in palm oil mill effluent for efficient COD removal and lipid production

Palm oil mill effluent (POME) with high COD can be utilized as a growth medium for microbial oil production, enabling simultaneous lipid production and effective green waste management. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the potential of co-cultivation of R. toruloides and A. falcatus to produce lipid and reduce COD in POME. The individual growth profiles of both cultures were assessed in POME and standard media. The cultures were co-cultivated in POME, and their lipid production, biomass growth, and COD removal were monitored. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimal POME concentration, yeast-to-microalgae ratio, and co-cultivation duration for the co-cultivation. The results demonstrated that co-cultivating the yeast and microalga in POME led to a significant increase in COD reduction and remarkable lipid production compared to pure cultures, resulting in fold increases of 2 and 1, respectively. The optimum conditions for achieving optimum COD removal and lipid production were obtained using a POME concentration of 59.88%, a yeast-to-microalgae ratio of 9:25, and a growth duration of 18 days, yielding 72.27% COD reduction, and 0.012 mg/L/d lipid productivity. This study highlights the potential of co-cultivating oleaginous yeast and microalga as a promising strategy for eco-friendly waste management in the oil palm industry and sustainable integrated biofuel production.

Feasibility of semi-pilot scale up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket fixed-film reactor for fermentative bio-hydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent

The present study focuses on bio-hydrogen production using palm oil mill effluent (POME) at a semi-pilot scale of an “up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket fixed-film (UASFF) reactor”. The reactor was operated in the palm oil mill industry for over 180 days of operation at ambient temperature through dark fermentation process with different organic loading rates (OLR) of 22–36 g-COD/l.d, depending on the COD concentration of POME. By acclimatizing the sludge, the semi-pilot scale UASFF reactor achieved hydrogen content, and hydrogen production rate (HPR) of 20%–68%, and 12 L H2/d to 39 L H2/d, respectively with a maximum COD removal of 35%. Moreover, from high through pyrosequencing analysis, hydrogen fermentation was attributed to Clostridium sensu stricto, Lactobacillus, and thermoanaerobium spp. This study offers an extensive approach to developing a semi-pilot scale bio-hydrogen production and, provides further prospects for profitable exploitation which could be a promising approach for reaching sustainability and economic feasibility (using wastewater as a low-cost feedstock) in commercial applications for future studies.

Degradation rate of palm oil mill effluent in bucket fish cultivation

This study aims to assess the level of degradation of palm oil mill effluent (POME) contamination as a medium for growing kale and catfish in a bucket fish cultivation system. This study used a completely randomized design consisting of four treatments and three replications. The treatments in this study were variations in the concentration of POME added to the culture media consisting of Control (0 mg.L-1), A (1,565 mg.L-1), B (2,347 mg.L-1), and C (3,130 mg.L-1). The test fish used were 5-7 cm catfish, 20 fish per bucket obtained from a local BBI, while the kale used was obtained from commercially sold seeds. Budikdamber maintenance time was conducted for 30 days and then analyzed by ANOVA. The parameters examined included the degradation rate of COD, TSS, phosphate, nitrate, and ammonia, pH, DO, and temperature of the cultivation media. The results showed that there was a decrease in COD, phosphate, nitrate and ammonia levels with increasing LCKS concentration, while TSS degradation showed a decrease with increasing POME concentration. The 3,130 mg.L-1 treatment, although showing a significant decrease in DO levels and an increase in pH, was still within the range allowed in fish cultivation. This indicates that the budikdamber system is less effective in decomposing the POME content and maintaining aquaculture water quality parameters.

Statistical Optimization for Cost-Effective Production of Yeast-Bacterium Cell-Bound Lipases Using Blended Oily Wastes and Their Potential Applications in Biodiesel Synthesis and Wastewater Bioremediation

Oily wastes have been widely used to produce lipases, but there is insufficient knowledge on their use to efficiently produce cell-bound lipases (CBLs). This research aimed to optimize yeast–bacterium CBLs production using blended oily wastes by statistical optimization and their potential applications in biodiesel production and wastewater bioremediation. The co-culture of Magnusiomyces spicifer AW2 and Staphylococcus hominis AUP19 produced CBLs as high as 4709 U/L with cell biomass of 23.4 g/L in a two-fold diluted palm oil mill effluent (POME) added by 2.08% (v/v) waste frying oil, 1.72.0% (w/v) ammonium sulfate, 0.1% (w/v) Gum Arabic as an emulsifier (initial pH at 7.0) within 24 h. The CBLs were successfully applied as whole-cell biocatalysts to produce biodiesel through esterification and transesterification with 76% and 87% yields, respectively. Direct application of CBLs for bioremediation of heat-treated various POME concentrations achieved 73.3% oil and grease removal and 73.6% COD removal within 3 days. This study has shown that the blended oily wastes medium was suitable for low-cost production of yeast–bacterium CBLs and their potential applications in solvent-free biodiesel production and wastewater bioremediation. These strategies may greatly contribute to economical green biofuel production and waste biotreatment.

Peruraian Anaerobik Termofilik Palm Oil Mill Effluent dengan Variasi Konsentrasi Substrat

High utilization of palm oil in Indonesia corresponds to palm oil mill effluent (POME). The POME has chemical oxygen demand (COD) of up to 100.000 mg/L, which can pollute the ecosystem if not adequately treated. One of the methods to manage POME is anaerobic thermophilic digestion. The advantage of this method is the production of methane gas which is a form of alternative energy. Substrate concentration affects anaerobic digestion. This preliminary experiment aims to evaluate the performance of anaerobic thermophilic digestion on various POME concentrations at 55 °C. The anaerobic digestion was run with 16.000, 11.000 and 5.000 mg sCOD/L substrate concentrations. Digested cow manure (DCM) was used as inoculum. The process was running in a continuous system after 7-days of acclimatization of the batch system. The result shows that 16.000 and 11.000 mg sCOD/L concentrations produced more methane, but the methane yield was not statistically significant with the Tukey test (p=0,05). The POME with a 5.000 mg sCOD/L concentration produced less methane and plummeted after day 85. The lower methane production at lower substrate concentration was due to the low sCOD availability and high volatile fatty acid (VFA) accumulation which inhibited the methane production.

Dairy manure pellets and palm oil mill effluent as alternative nutrient sources in cultivating Sporosarcina pasteurii for calcium carbonate bioprecipitation.

Microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a process that hydrolysis urea by microbial urease to fill the pore spaces of soil with induced calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) precipitates, which eventually results in improved or solidified soil. This research explored the possibility of using dairy manure pellets (DMP) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) as alternative nutrient sources for Sporosarcina pasteurii cultivation and CaCO3 bioprecipitation. Different concentrations (20-80 g l-1 ) of DMP and POME were used to propagate the cells of S. pasteurii under laboratory conditions. The measured CaCO3 contents for MICP soil specimens that were treated with bacterial cultures grown in DMP medium (60%, w/v) was 15·30 ± 0·04 g ml-1 and POME medium (40%, v/v) was 15·49 ± 0·05 g ml-1 after 21 days curing. The scanning electron microscopy showed that soil treated with DMP had rhombohedral structure-like crystals with smooth surfaces, whilst that of POME entailed ring-like cubical formation with rough surfaces Electron dispersive X-ray analysis was able to identify a high mass percentage of chemical element compositions (Ca, C and O), whilst spectrum from Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the vibration peak intensities for CaCO3 . Atomic force microscopy further showed clear topographical differences on the crystal surface structures that were formed around the MICP treated soil samples. These nutrient sources (DMP and POME) showed encouraging potential cultivation mediums to address high costs related to bacterial cultivation and biocementation treatment.

Highly Effective Cow Bone Based Biocomposite for the Sequestration of Organic Pollutant Parameter from Palm Oil Mill Effluent in a Fixed Bed Column Adsorption System.

The reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from palm oil mill effluent (POME) is very significant to ensure aquatic protection and the environment. Continuous adsorption of COD in a fixed bed column can be an effective treatment process for its reduction prior to discharge. Adsorption capacity of bone derived biocomposite synthesized from fresh cow bones, zeolite, and coconut shells for the reduction in the organic pollutant parameter was investigated in this study in a fixed bed column. The effect of influent flow rate (1.4, 2.0, and 2.6 mL/min) was determined at an influent pH 7. The optimum bed capacity on the fabricated composite of surface area of 251.9669 m2/g was obtained at 1.4 mL/min at breakthrough time of 5.15 h influent POME concentration. The experimental data were fitted to Thomas, Adams–Bohart, and Yoon–Nelson models fixed bed adsorption models. It was revealed that the results fitted well to the Adams Bohart model with a correlation coefficient of R2 > 0.96 at different influent concentration. Adsorption rate constant was observed to increase at lower flow rate influent concentration, resulting in longer empty bed contact time (EBCT) for the mass transfer zone of the column to reach the outlet of the effluent concentration. In general, the overall kinetics of adsorption indicated that the reduction in COD from POME using a bone-biocomposite was effective at the initial stage of adsorption. The pore diffusion model better described the breakthrough characteristics for COD reduction with high correlation coefficient. Shorter breakthrough time compared to EBCT before regeneration indicated that the bone composite was suitable and effective for the reduction in COD from POME using fixed bed column adsorption.

Haemato-biochemical and ionic regulatory responses of the hybrid catfish, Heteroclarias, to sublethal concentrations of palm oil mill effluents

BackgroundPollution arising from the noxiousness of palm oil mill effluent (POME) has become a serious threat to aquatic biotas. However, a paucity of information exists on fish response to POME-mediated oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, haemato-biochemical, enzymatic and ionic changes. This study, therefore, evaluates the effects of 28-day exposure of Heteroclarias, a hybrid catfish, to POME. Juvenile Heteroclarias (n = 350, average weight: 11.90 ± 0.70 g and average length: 9.04 ± 0.71 cm) were exposed to sublethal concentrations (0-control, 4.00, 8.00 and 12.00 mg/l) of POME to determine its effects on red blood cells (RBC), haemoglobin (HB), packed cell volume (PCV), white blood cells (WBC), mean cell haemoglobin (MCH), mean cell haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and mean cell volume (MCV). The activities of alanine aminotransaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransaminase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), calcium (Ca+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+) and sodium (Na+) ions were also assayed in the gill and liver.ResultsExposure to POME caused significant (p < 0.05) concentration-dependent decrease in RBC, HB, PCV, MCV, MCH and MCHC values, whereas a significant (p < 0.05) concentration-dependent increase in WBC was observed in POME-exposed fish compared to the control. ALT, AST, LDH, GPx, SOD and CAT activities in the gill and liver significantly (p < 0.05) increased in a concentration-dependent manner. MDA level significantly (p < 0.05) increased in the gill relative to control, while in the liver it was insignificantly different. Both tissues exhibited an increase in Ca+, K+, Mg2+ and Na+ levels at the highest toxicant concentration with a rise of 77.93, 38.46, 109.54 and 41.99% recorded for the electrolytes in the gill and 79.17, 26.92, 55.48 and 38.78% in the liver above the control value, respectively. The levels of all the electrolytes except K+ were higher in the gill than the liver and were in the order: Na+ > K+ > Mg+ > Ca2+ in both tissues.ConclusionsThese results may be used as a suitable tool for pollution assessment and policy formulation to mitigate the discharge of untreated POME into aquatic ecosystems and their impacts on resident organisms.

Effluent from local palm oil mill refinery in Nigeria is excessively oily and potentially genotoxic

In spite of the fact that the informal, local mills in countries like Nigeria constitute a major portion of the palm oil refinery, adequate attention has not been paid to the quality of the palm oil mill effluent (POME) they generate. In this study, therefore, the physicochemical properties and genotoxic potential of POME generated by a local mill in Nigeria were investigated using the methods prescribed by the American Public Health Association and Allium cepa chromosomal assay, respectively. In addition to the presence of trace/toxic metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu) and high biochemical oxygen demand, POME contained a very high oil and grease concentration of 10,500 mg L-1 as against the maximum limit of 25 mg L-1 prescribed in the Environmental Management Guideline for the Palm Oil Industry. Mitotic activities in A. cepa roots exposed to POME showed that the number of dividing cells and percentage mitotic index generally decreased with increasing POME concentrations. The major chromosomal aberrations induced by POME were sticky, C-mitosis, bridged anaphase, vagrant, and attached chromosomes. However, no chromosomal aberrations were observed in onion roots exposed to water (control). These results indicate that the local refinery from where the POME was obtained is inefficient at recovering oil from palm fibre. The effluent generated by the mill is also a potential pollutant capable of inducing genotoxic and other adverse effects. These results may be typical of many more local palm oil refineries who use mainly manual methods to extract oil from oil palm fruits.

The feasibility of immobilized Chlorella vulgaris cultivated in palm oil mill effluent for lipid and fatty acid methyl ester production

The abundance of palm oil mill effluent (POME) in Malaysia had exposed an opportunity for the researchers to replace the common culture for microalgae cultivation process. However, the small size of microalgae bring difficulties in the separation process from the culture medium. Thus, immobilization technique had been implemented in this study to simplify the separation process of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. A new immobilized C. vulgaris consisted of combination matrix (sodium alginate (SA), calcium alginate (CA) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)) with volumetric ratio (Matrix:Microalgae) 0.3:1 were utilized in this experiment. The feasibility of POME as a cultivation medium was determined by cultivating the immobilized C. vulgaris in different concentration of POME (20–100%). Two types of media were explored in this study which were POME mixed with distilled water (DW) (0–80%) and POME mixed with Bold Basal Medium (BBM) (0–80%). Based on the cell density result, the medium with 20% POME + 80% DW and 40% POME + 60% BBM medium performed the highest number of cells with 1.63 × 109 cells/mL and 0.59 × 109 cells/mL, respectively. Meanwhile, the the POME mixture medium showed the potential as a cultivation medium for the immobilized microalgae. The lipid extracted from immobilized microalgae beads cultivated in BBM media were the highest with 48.03 ± 3.7%, followed by 20% POME + 80% DW (38.14 ± 2.2%) and the lowest by 40% POME + 60% BBM media (32.93 ± 2.8%). Besides, the FAME produced from oil extracted using immobilized microalgae biomass cultured in POME mixture medium showed a good quality of oil. Thus, the oil produced revealed the potential for biodiesel production.

Optimization of the operational parameters for mesophilic biohydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent using enriched mixed culture

Improvements in biohydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent (POME) has been achieved by optimizing the physicochemical conditions, using an enriched sludge as inoculum. Enrichment of biohydrogen-producing communities in the sludge was first carried out by heat treatment and acclimatization to POME. Response surface methodology (RSM) was then used for optimizing the operational parameters. The factors investigated were temperature, initial pH, and inoculum concentration. The output responses were evaluated based on the biohydrogen yield (YH2), biohydrogen production rate (RH2), and COD removal efficiency. Microbial analysis of the enriched sludge at 100% POME concentration revealed the abundance of the Firmicutes phylum (98%) among the Bacteria population, with Clostridiaceae as the most abundant family. Archaea were inhibited at both 30% and 100% POME concentration. The optimum operational parameters generated by the RSM model were 34.7 °C, pH 5.81, and inoculum size of 14.22% (v/v), with the following predicted outcomes: YH2 of 42.29 mL H2 gCOD−1, RH2 of 106.09 mL L−1 h−1, and COD removal efficiency of 23.66%. Meanwhile, the experimental data generated were as follows: YH2 of 41.18 mL H2 gCOD−1, RH2 of 109 mL L−1 h−1, and COD removal efficiency of 25.96%. The process reliability was further demonstrated in a larger (2.5 L) continuously stirred-tank reactor, with the maximum biohydrogen yield obtained of 282 mL H2 gCOD−1 and COD removal efficiency of 35%. Butyric and acetic acids were the dominant soluble metabolites produced. These findings suggest that the RSM model generated was successfully used to optimize biohydrogen production from POME using enriched anaerobic digested sludge.

Aerobic-pond Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) utilization as growth medium of Scenedesmus obliquus for lipid production

The purpose of this research is to know the growth rate and biomass production of Scenedesmus obliquus in palm oil mill effluent (POME) medium taken from aerobic pond and to know the lipid concentration produced by S. obliquus. In this research, S. obliquus was cultured in various POME concentration, those were 20, 60, 80, 90, 95, and 100% v/v, while the concentration of inoculum was 30% v/v, and fatty acid content was analysed by gas chromatography. The results revealed that growth rate was decrease with the increasing concentration of POME (0.3545, 0.1792, 0.1566, 0.1268, 0.1158, and 0.1008/day), dry biomass weight was increase with the increasing concentration of POME (0.40, 1.20, 1.30, 1.77, 2.28, and 2.45 g/L), and lipid content also tended to increase with the increasing concentration of POME (13.10%, 36.59%, 36.65%, 50.37%, 60.40%, and 64.98%). Oleic acid and behenic acid were the dominant fatty acid content in S. obliquus lipid cultured in 100% concentration POME media. It is concluded that aerobic-pond POME can be utilized as growth medium for S. obliquus with a high lipid content.

Cultivation of microalgae in palm oil mill effluent (POME) for astaxanthin production and simultaneous phycoremediation

Haematococcus pluvialis and Chromochloris zofingiensis are freshwater microalgae exploited to produce the high-value carotenoid, astaxanthin. Nonetheless, a copious amount of freshwater is consumed for microalgae cultivation, thereby raising concerns regarding sustainable astaxanthin production. Characterization of palm oil mill effluent (POME) obtained from a commercial facility in southern Sri Lanka revealed high concentrations of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP) and low concentrations of heavy metals, thus showcasing the potential of POME as an alternative growth media for astaxanthin production. Hence, H. pluvialis and C. zofingiensis were cultivated in 2.5%, 5.0% and 7.5% POME with the aim of producing astaxanthin, reducing freshwater consumption, and simultaneous phycoremediation. H. pluvialis exhibited better adaptability to higher POME concentrations, with its maximum astaxanthin yield (22.43 mg/L) achieved in 7.5% POME, whilst reducing specific freshwater consumption for astaxanthin production by 43%. However, only moderate performance in phycoremediation was achieved, with removal of 50.9% chemical oxygen demand (COD), 49.3% total nitrogen and 69.4% total phosphorous at rates of 3.95 mg/L/d, 0.50 mg/L/d and 0.11 mg/L/d respectively. The heavy metal content in biomass was within permissible limits. Characterization of astaxanthin-extracted residual biomass of H. pluvialis revealed possible applications as protein-rich animal feed or feedstock for biofuel production. Results indicated that POME generated in Sri Lankan palm oil mills has the potential to be utilized for large scale production of microalgal astaxanthin. Nevertheless, pilot-scale experiments, product toxicology evaluation and techno-economic feasibility studies are required prior to implementation of large-scale POME-integrated astaxanthin production facilities.

Dark fermentation of palm oil mill effluent by Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus immobilized on activated carbon for thermophilic biohydrogen production

The first attempts were made to investigate the performance of extreme thermophile Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus immobilized on granular activated carbon (GAC) utilizing palm oil mill effluent for hydrogen production. It found that the strain fermented well in raw palm oil mill effluent (POME) wastewater; bring to highest hydrogen productivity rates (HPR) of 20.8 mL H 2 /L h, at 12 g/L total carbohydrates (TC) in sterile condition; and 29.8 mL H 2 /L h HPR at 9 g/L TC, in contrast, in non-sterile condition. Meanwhile, HPR of 38.8 mL H 2 /L h, with a yield of 3.0 mol H 2 /mol sugar found as highest at 10 g/L glucose, indicates this bacteria can perform well in a robust environment. Immobilization of C. saccharolyticus on activated carbon by supplementing POME-enriched nutrient leads to the highest yields of 2.6 mol H 2 /mol of sugar, at 10% POME concentration. However, the results with other POME concentrations are not significantly different, indicating the new attempt of immobilized C. saccharolyticus on GAC seems promising to achieve consistent HPR at extreme thermophilic conditions. • Performances Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus on activated carbon were studied. • Biohydrogen were produced using palm oil mill effluent as carbon source. • Effect of wide range sugar concentration were evaluated in H 2 production.

Growth of Microalgae Spirulina platensis on Media Containing Palm Oil Mill Effluent

Spirulina platensis, a Cyanobacteria, is used as a natural food in fish hatcheries and a food supplement for humans. These microalgae are very nutritious, containing 63-68% protein, 18-20% carbohydrates, and 2-3% fat. Increased production of palm oil has serious side effects on the aquatic environment due to the disposal of palm oil mill effluent (POME). POME are thought to be suitable as nutrients and media to microalgae. This study aimed to determine the effect of POME with different nutrient variations on the growth of these microalgae. This study used a randomized block design (RBD) with 2 factors, namely factor A (POME concentration) which consisted of 3 levels, namely 20 ppm (A1), 40 ppm (A2), and 60 ppm (A3) and factor B (media) namely Walne (B1), and Guillard (B2) with 3 repetitions. The results showed that the addition of POME had positive effect on the growth of S. platensis. The higher the POME concentration the better the growth rates obtained for both types of media. For Walne medium, the best growth was obtained on day 10 of A3B1 (69,447.98 sins/ml). Meanwhile, for Guillard medium, the highest growth was achieved on day 8 of A3B2 (82,027,6 sins/ml).

Production of Bricks from Sludge of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)

Malaysia has been recognized in recent decades as one of the world's leading palm oil producers and exporters. The number of palm oil mills multiplies each year, increasing the capacity of fresh fruit bunch waste or effluent discharged. Countless numbers of research and development, as well as implementation, have been dedicated to advancing the pollution control technologies. Most of the research is to treat and manage liquid and solid waste generated from palm oil mills. The main reason for such tremendous efforts is that the waste coming from palm oil mills has been declared as one of the pollution sources in the world. Thus, the purpose of this study was to utilize treated palm oil mill effluent (POME) sludge from the electrocoagulation process to produce bricks. Here, three different dilution rates, which was 60%, 90% and 100% of POME concentration have been analyzed in the electrocoagulation process, respectively. After the electrocoagulation process, the characteristics of POME effluents were evaluated, and the treated POME sludge was collected. Instead of being discarded after the treatment, the treated waste sludge from the electrocoagulation process was used to make bricks. Three different bricks labelled (A, B and C) from treated POME sludge from the electrocoagulation process (60%, 90% and 100%) were fabricated. These bricks have been analyzed based on the JKR Standard Specifications for Building Works. Data obtained showed that the compressive strength for the bricks (A, B and C) after seven days were 6.076, 8.233, and 6.344 N/mm2. Meanwhile, the bulk density of the bricks (A, B and C) were 2247.92, 2233.95, and 2094.33 kg/m3. The results showed that the compressive strength for these brick samples had met the JKR Standard Specification for Building Works of 5.2 N/mm2. It can be deduced that the bricks from treated POME can be a greener product compared to the traditional bricks. Moreover, the concept of a circular economy is adapted in this study to eliminate waste for a long-term sustainable environment.

Economical cultivation system of microalgae Spirulina platensis for lipid production

The marine algae Spirulina platensis was cultured in a medium of palm oil mill effluent (POME) and the production of lipid in the biomass was optimized. Among 7 species Spirulina platensis was isolated from the marine sample which have greater lipid potential was collected from Pantai Teluk Cempedak, Kuantan which is located at East Coast region of Pahang state. At 28+2 °C, the maximum lipid content in the biomass harvested at the end of a 15 days batch culture was quantified with the following values of the experimental factors: POME concentration with (10%, 20% and 30%) (v/v) and light intensity (3,000 lux, 4,000 lux, 5,000 lux). Under the optimized conditions with 20% of POME, the maximum dry mass concentration of the was 754.5 mg L−1 with lipid 34.5% production on day 13 of a batch culture, declining to ∼687 mg L−1 on day 15. At 5,000 lux light intensities, the maximum yield obtained was 854.6 mg L−1 with lipid 35.8% production on day 14, it declined to 732.8 mg L−1 on day 15.

Prevention of Soil Erosion Using Microalgae in Malaysia

With rapid urbanization and economic development, soil erosion may occur at an alarming rate causing serious environmental problems globally including Malaysia. The current control methods such as ground covers and slope drains are expensive and not eco-friendly. Therefore, Biological Soil Crust (BSC) method can be a better alternative to prevent the soil erosion. However, most studies were focusing on in temperate and dry areas. In this work, our objectives were i) to cultivate Malaysia’s indigenous species BSC forming algae, ii) to culture the algal strain in POME medium at different concentrations, and iii) to test soil erosion in the presence of BSC. Our results have shown that algal growth had increased with the decrease of POME concentration; the algal growth was highest at the concentration of 20%. Also, the results from soil erosion tests have demonstrated that soil covered with BSC has improved soil stability by 135% compared to the soil without BSC. This suggests that BSC application is promising in preventing soil erosion. This paper is the first of its kind with the aim of providing an information on the isolation of Malaysia’s local strain in palm oil mill effluent (POME) for BSC application in the tropical climate region.