Concentration Distribution Research Articles

Computational investigation of transportation and thermal characteristics in a bi-modal slurry flow through a horizontally placed pipe bend

In this study, we develop a three-dimensional computational model to explore the transportation and thermal characteristics of a bi-modal slurry flowing through a horizontally placed 90° pipe bend. The slurry comprises silica sand (SS) and fly ash (FA) granular, with varying combinations (65:35, 75:25, 85:15, 95:05, and 100:0). The computational investigation has been carried out for different carrier fluid's characteristics, including Prandtl number, and flow velocity (5 m/s), for efflux concentrations of Cw = 40–60% for each mixture. Validated with experimental data, the computational approach employs a two-phase Eulerian-Eulerian RNG k-ε turbulence model and the kinetic theory of granular flow. Results reveal that the 65:35 combination exhibits minimal pressure drop, and the 100:0 combination shows maximum heat transfer characteristics, particularly with low-viscosity fluid (Pr = 2.88) and high particle efflux concentration (Cw = 60%). The study also examines bend loss coefficients (Kt), concentration distribution, convective heat transfer coefficient (h), and Nusselt number (Nu) across different Prandtl fluids and efflux concentrations.

Estimating emission flux of H2S from fumarolic fields using vertical sensor array system

The emission flux of volatiles from each fumarolic field in volcanic and geothermal areas can be used to evaluate the current state of magmatic activity and predict its future trends. The emission flux of SO2 has been quantified in many fumarolic fields using remote sensing techniques, such as differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS). However, most of these remote sensing techniques are inapplicable to fumarolic fields emitting volatiles depleted in SO2 to which most of the geothermal fields are classified. In this study, we developed a vertical sensor array system to quantify the emission flux of H2S from each fumarolic field by integrating the cross-sectional distributions of H2S concentrations in the volcanic plume using the vertical sensor array system. In Iwo-yama of the Kirishima volcanic complex, the cross-sectional distribution of H2S concentrations was determined using the walking traverse method by moving the vertical sensor array system in the plume perpendicular to the direction of plume transport. The emission flux of SO2 (2.2 ± 0.4 ton SO2/day) was estimated from that of H2S using the walking traverse method (2.6 ± 0.5 ton H2S/day) and the molar ratio of the plume (SO2/H2S=0.45) corresponds well with that estimated optically by JMA. We concluded that the emission flux quantified using the vertical sensor array system was reliable. In the Oyunuma pond in the Kuttara volcano, the emission flux of H2S was quantified as 2.0 ton H2S/day through the fixed point method, wherein the vertical sensor array system was fixed in one point, whereas the cross sectional distribution of H2S in the plume was estimated using the natural variation in wind direction. The topography is often irregular and wind direction is variable in most fumarolic fields; thus, in general, the fixed point method should be more suitable to determine the emission flux of H2S from fumarolic fields, wherein H2S occupies a major portion of the total sulfur emission.

The diffusion behavior of H3O+ in insulation systems composed of paper cellulose and modified natural ester insulating oil

The oil-paper insulation system will be affected by the synergistic effects of moisture and acids during long-term stable operation of the transformer. The moisture in the oil can be combined with the H+ionized from the acid molecules in the form of H3O+ by coordination, thus changing the proportion of acid distribution in the insulating oil and paper cellulose. Natural ester insulating oil, as a new development trend to replace mineral oil, can be significantly improved by adding nanoparticles to them. The diffusion behavior of H3O+ in paper cellulose and nano-SiO2-modified soybean oil-based natural ester insulating oil insulating system has been investigated using molecular dynamics in this article. The results indicate that the incorporation with nanoparticles is effective in mitigating the impact of temperature on the diffusion behavior of H3O+ in oil-paper insulation. Compared with the unmodified model, the nano-modified model results in a significant reduction in the concentration distribution of H3O+ in paper cellulose. The hydroxyl and ether bonds in paper cellulose will interact with H3O+ to generate hydrogen bonds and destroy its original hydrogen bonding network, while nanoparticles can inhibit diffusion by adsorbing H3O+ through hydroxyl oxygen atoms.

Synergistic Impact on Indoor Air Quality: The Combined Use of Air Conditioners, Air Purifiers, and Fresh Air Systems

As concerns about indoor air quality increase, air purifiers and fresh air systems are increasingly being used in conjunction with air conditioners in office buildings. To study the synergistic effects of multisystem joint operation on indoor air quality, this study used a combination of experimental and simulation methods to study the indoor particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5) and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations under different operation conditions. The purification time and the PM2.5 concentration distribution under different conditions were compared with the condition in which the purifier was used alone. The results showed that the purification time required for the condition that the air conditioner runs together with the purifier was shortened by 15.2%. When the fresh air system is running together with the purifier, the purification time can be reduced by 30.4%. It was reduced by 32.6% when the three systems were operating at the same time. The PM2.5 concentration distribution under the joint operating condition was much more even than that under the condition in which the purifier was running alone. To analyze the impact on the CO2 distribution, the CO2 distributions under different joint operations were compared. The results show that the fresh air system can effectively dilute CO2 below 1000 ppm in 30 min. The air conditioner and purifier could help to mix the indoor air to provide a much more uniform indoor CO2 distribution.

The Mechanical Properties and Chlorine Resistance of Concrete Based on the Effects of Pouring Interval Time

In practical engineering construction, differences in time intervals during concrete pouring arise due to issues in concrete quality control and construction procedures, thereby affecting the mechanical and durability properties of concrete. This study conducted compressive strength tests, splitting tensile strength tests, and natural immersion tests to investigate the influence of time intervals in layered pouring on the mechanical strength and chloride ion concentration distribution of staged pouring concrete. Additionally, the study elucidated the mechanism by which pouring interval time affects the mechanical properties and resistance to chloride ion erosion of staged pouring concrete at the microstructure level. The results indicate that compared to ordinary concrete specimens, the splitting tensile strength of staged pouring concrete demonstrates a continuous decrease with increasing pouring interval time. The most significant splitting tensile strength decrease occurred at a 24 h interval. The compressive strength of staged pouring concrete initially decreases and then increases with increasing pouring interval time. At a pouring interval time of 12 h, the compressive strength of staged pouring concrete decreased the most. Results from the natural immersion tests demonstrate that chloride ion concentrations at the bonding interface and on both sides of staged pouring concrete increase continuously with the extension of pouring interval time. The chloride ion concentration at the bonding interface is consistently higher than that on both sides, and the difference between them decreases with increasing diffusion depth. The chloride ion concentration difference ΔC was proposed to evaluate the influence of bonding interface performance on chloride ion concentration, which decreases to varying degrees with increasing depth. The findings of this study can provide guidance for the research on the mechanical properties and durability of staged pouring concrete in practical engineering construction, as well as for engineering protective measures.

Occurrence and inhalation health risk of neonicotinoid pesticides in outdoor air particulate matters from 2019 to 2021 in China

Neonicotinoid insecticides (NNIs), as a new type of insecticide, are widely used in agriculture and daily life. Because of the low volatility of NNIs, few studies have evaluated them in atmospheric particulate matter. In this study, 101 outdoor PM2.5 samples were collected from the Wuhan urban area from 2019 to 2021, leading to the detection of seven NNIs and three of their metabolites. The detection frequencies of all 10 substances were more than 60%, with DIN (dinotefuran) and IMI (imidacloprid) reaching 100%. DIN (52.4 pg/m3) and IMI (43.0 pg/m3) had higher median concentrations than other substances. Concentration distributions of the four substances ACE (acetamiprid), DIN, IMI, and 5-OH-IMI (5-Hydro-Imidacloprid) exhibited statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) across the four seasons. Concentration levels of ACE, CLO (clothianidin), and IMI were statistically different between the three years (P < 0.05). The median concentration of imidacloprid-equivalent total neonicotinoids (IMIeq: generated by the relative potency factor method) was 256.1 pg/m3. Finally, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of NNIs via respiration was greater in infants and young children than in the rest of the population, suggesting that infants and young children were more likely to be exposed to the health effects of airborne residual PM2.5.

Spatial distribution of NORMs concentrations and assessing potential risk to inhabitants in western Chattogram, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT This study represents a pioneering endeavour in consolidating previous measurements of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) within the Chattogram division, Bangladesh. Employing a meticulous approach, data was overlaid onto a comprehensive grid map covering the entire Chattogram region, comprising 523 grids, each of 8.05 km x 8.05 km. The analysis revealed numerous areas where NORMs concentrations had not been previously measured. To bridge this gap, soil samples were collected from 56 previously unmeasured locations across Cumilla and Chandpur districts and analysed using high purity Germanium (HPGe) detector technology. Results indicated average activity concentrations of Ra-226, Th-232, and K-40 at 27.30 ± 5.41, 46.09 ± 7.88, and 362.50 ± 48.10 Bq.kg−1 respectively, with no detectable presence of Cs-137 or other anthropogenic radionuclides, affirming the region’s absence of fallout or accidental releases. Additionally, measured values for radiation hazard indices are well within acceptable limits set by United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Spatial distribution maps of radionuclide concentrations and absorbed dose rates were generated not only for the immediate study area but also for the entire Chattogram division, integrating previously collected data for the first time. These distribution maps, alongside the comprehensive findings of this study, establish a pivotal dataset for future research and regulatory efforts, providing invaluable insights into the region’s radiological landscape.

Cattaneo–Christov heat and mass flux model and thermal enhancement in three‐dimensional MHD Jeffrey hybrid nanofluid flow over a bi‐directional stretching sheet with convective boundary conditions

AbstractInspired by the progressive relaxation characteristics of the Jeffrey model and its applied advantages in the rheological modeling of various dynamic fluids, the current study is focused to investigate the heat and mass transfer of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Jeffrey hybrid nanofluid flow over bi‐directional stretching sheet with convective boundary conditions. Additionally, the Cattaneo–Christov model of heat and mass flux is employed to take into consideration the time relaxation effects. The energy and concentration equation are taken into account to explore the effects of thermophoresis and Brownian motion. Homotopy analysis method (HAM) is employed for the solution of the current problem. Solution methodology is verified by comparing present results with those already published in open literature. The physical aspects of obtained graphical and numerical results are explained in detail to justify acquired trends. From the investigation, it is inferred that the magnetic and viscoelastic factors have a reducing influence on the flow profile along primary and secondary directions, while the stretching parameter has an increasing behavior on the flow profile in the secondary direction. Furthermore, the Brownian motion, magnetic parameter, and thermophoretic parameter have an escalating behavior on thermal distribution; however, the Brownian motion has a declining consequence on the concentration profile. The larger Biot number heightens the thermal and concentration distributions.

A CFD study on radionuclides diffusion and dose assessment in Daya Bay nuclear power plant

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to simulate the short-range dispersion of radionuclides in a real nuclear power plant site. Firstly, the results of the validation case showed that the wind speed and concentration distribution were consistent with the measured data. Then, the potential consequences of radionuclide diffusion within the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant (DBNPP) were evaluated. Based on the wind direction and speed data from DBNNP over a 30-year period, the prevailing wind is northeasterly and southwesterly. The simulation results show that northeasterly and southwesterly winds dominate the diffusion direction of radionuclides, which mainly accumulate near nuclear reactor containment vessels. However, radionuclides cover most areas of DBNPP under a tailwind condition, causing severe contamination. Finally, it is necessary to pay attention to the accumulation of I-131 and Cs-137, and corresponding actions should be taken for regions of different radiation doses.

Role of sea spray aerosol at the air–sea interface in transporting aromatic acids to the atmosphere

Abstract. Aromatic acids are ubiquitous in seawater (SW) and can be transported to the atmosphere via sea spray aerosol (SSA). Despite their importance in affecting the global radiative balance, the contribution of marine aromatic acids and their transport mechanisms through SSA remain unclear. Herein, the distribution of particle size and number concentration of SSA produced in SW containing nine different aromatic acids (i.e., benzoic acids, benzenedicarboxylic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids, vanillic acid, and syringic acid) was studied using a custom-made SSA simulation chamber; moreover, the enrichment of aromatic acids in SSA and their emission flux to the atmosphere were analyzed. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images clearly revealed that aromatic acids can be transferred to the nascent SSA. Interestingly, the morphology associated with benzenedicarboxylic-acid-coated particles showed that aromatic acids can promote the growth of other surfaces of sea salt, thus making the sea salt core spherical. Aromatic acids showed a significant enrichment behavior at the air–sea interface, which clearly indicated that SSA represents a source of aromatic acids in the atmosphere. Vanillic acid had the largest global emission flux through SSA (962 t yr−1), even though its concentration in SW was lower. The calculated results indicated that the global annual flux of aromatic acids was affected not only by the concentration in SW, but also by their enrichment factor (EF). These data are critical for further quantifying the contribution of organic acids to the atmosphere via SSA, which may provide an estimate of the potential influence of the atmospheric feedbacks to the ocean carbon cycle.

Hydrodynamic and biochemical impacts on the development of hypoxia in the Louisiana–Texas shelf – Part 1: roles of nutrient limitation and plankton community

Abstract. A three-dimensional coupled hydrodynamic–biogeochemical model with multiple nutrient and plankton functional groups was developed and adapted to the Gulf of Mexico to investigate the role of nutrients and the complexity of plankton community in dissolved oxygen (DO) dynamics. A 15-year hindcast was achieved covering the period of 2006–2020. Extensive model validation against in situ data demonstrates that the model was capable of reproducing vertical distributions of DO and spatial distributions of bottom DO concentration, as well as their interannual variations. The study demonstrates that bottom DO dynamics and hypoxia evolution are significantly influenced by both physical processes and local biochemistry, with sedimentary oxygen consumption and vertical diffusion identified as key contributors. Summer hydrodynamics play a critical role in nutrient distribution and limitation: a notable expansion of Si limitation was simulated when coastal currents shifted eastward or northward. This effect, especially pronounced on the western part of the Louisiana–Texas shelf, underscores the importance of nutrient limitation in shaping DO dynamics. The model identifies a bi-peak primary production pattern in spring and early summer, aligned with satellite chlorophyll a variations, attributed to the complexity of the plankton community and interactions among different plankton groups. Our findings emphasize the necessity of integrating sophisticated plankton community dynamics into biogeochemical models to understand primary production variability and its impact on bottom hypoxia.

Viscous dissipation and Joule heating in case of variable electrical conductivity Carreau–Yasuda nanofluid flow in a complex wavy asymmetric channel through porous media

This paper focuses on flow structures and thermal fields of the Carreau–Yasuda (CY) nanofluid model through a two-dimensional, wavy, complicated vertical asymmetrical conduit filled with porous elements. Formulations of the viscous dissipation in the case of CY nanofluids are derived and nonlinear radiation flux as well as joule heating are examined. Buongiorno’s nanofluid approach, which involves Brownian motion and thermophoresis aspects is considered. The electrical conductivity of the suspension is considered as a variable where it depends upon the ambient temperature and concentration distributions and the Joule heating impacts are not neglected. The approach of solving the problem is contingent upon converting the system to dimensionless form then the lubrication approach with low magnetic Reynold numbers is applied. Numerical solutions are found for the resultant system, and wide ranges are considered for Weissenberg number We, non-Newtonian parameter n and Darcy number [Formula: see text], namely, [Formula: see text], [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], respectively. The major results indicated that gradients of the pressure are higher in case of shear thickening [Formula: see text] comparing to in the instance of shear thinning [Formula: see text]. Also, the velocity is enhanced, close to the channel’s lowest portion, as the Weissenberg number is growing. The variable electrical conductivity gives a higher mass transfer rate compared to the constant property.

Design and Effect Evaluation of a Hydrogen-Natural Gas Mixing Device at Jingbian Compressor Station

Abstract Hydrogen gas is an environmentally friendly alternative energy source with zero emissions, making it highly valuable for replacing fossil fuels and reducing carbon emissions. One effective method of transporting hydrogen gas is by injecting it into existing natural gas pipelines. In this research, we focus on the Jingbian compressor station. This station is used for hydrogenation, blending hydrogen with the natural gas flowing through the pipelines. We propose a suitable process for hydrogen blending and design a mixing device to facilitate this process. To evaluate the mixing effect of the blended gas, we conducted numerical simulations to analyze the velocity and concentration distribution along the continuous section of the hydrogen blending pipeline. The results indicated that achieving a hydrogen branch length of 1/2 the diameter of the natural gas main pipe and a hydrogen flow rate of 10% resulted in a nonuniformity of hydrogen concentration at L = 30D of less than 0.05. Furthermore, when the hydrogen concentration was set at 3%, 10%, and 30%, the hydrogen concentration in the cross-section of the pipe gradually approached the expected concentration as the mixed gas flowed. It is worth noting that during transportation of hydrogen-containing natural gas to the outlet, the velocity distribution on the cross-section remained asymmetric, potentially leading to measurement errors. However, the use of a flow conditioner resulted in a reduction in hydrogen nonuniformity and minimized velocity fluctuations, resulting in a small and uniformly distributed flow, which is advantageous for accurate measurement and transportation purposes.

Neural Network-Based Modeling of Diffusion-Induced Stress in a Hollow Cylindrical Nano-Electrode of Lithium-Ion Battery

Abstract Understanding the interaction between mechanical deformation and mass transport, such as diffusion-induced stress, is crucial in the development of advanced battery materials and electrochemical devices. Mathematical modeling and solving the coupling problems have played important roles in advancing the understanding of the interaction between mechanical deformation and mass transport. As the complexity of mathematical modeling continues to increase, numerical methods used to solve the related coupling problems are likely to encounter significant challenges. This work explores the feasibility of designing a neural network specifically for solving diffusion-induced stress in the electrode of lithium-ion battery via deep learning techniques. A loss function is constructed from the spatiotemporal coordinates of sampling points within the solution domain, the overall structure of the system of partial differential equations, boundary conditions, and initial conditions. The distributions of stress and lithium concentration in a hollow-cylindrical nanoelectrode are obtained. The high degree of conformity between the numerical results and those from finite element method is demonstrated.

Modeling and Simulation of Single Flow Zinc–Nickel Redox Battery Coupled with Multi-Physics Fields

Metallic zinc (Zn) presents a compelling alternative to conventional electrochemical energy storage systems due to its environmentally friendly nature, abundant availability, high water compatibility, low toxicity, low electrochemical potential (−0.762 V vs. SHE), and cost-effectiveness. While considerable efforts have been devoted to enhancing the physical and chemical properties of zinc-ion battery materials to improve battery efficiency and longevity, research on multi-physics coupled modeling for a deeper understanding of battery performance remains relatively scarce. In this study, we established a comprehensive two-dimensional model for single-flow zinc–nickel redox batteries to investigate electrode reactions, current-potential behaviors, and concentration distributions, leveraging theories such as Nernst–Planck and Butler–Volmer. Additionally, we explored the distribution of the velocity field using the Brinkman theory in porous media and the Navier–Stokes equations in free-flow channels. The validated model, informed by experimental data, not only provides insights into the performance of the battery, but also offers valuable recommendations for advancing single-flow zinc–nickel battery technology. Our findings offer promising avenues for enhancing the design and performance of not only zinc–nickel flow batteries, but also applicable for other flow battery designs.

Continuum insight into the effects of electrode design parameters on the electrochemical performance of lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries energy and power density strongly depend on the type of active material and the electrode design parameters. An in-depth understanding of the effect of battery design parameters on their electrochemical performance is experimentally expensive and hence requires the utilization of cheaper continuum scale models. Here, using a lithium-ion cell composed of LiFePO4 cathode, Li4Ti5O12 anode and a porous separator filled with a liquid electrolyte as an example, we demonstrate the use of an experimentally validated pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) model in one-dimension to explore the effects of different cell design parameters on the discharge capacity at different current rates. The model is simulated in two-dimensional to instantly visualize the concentration distribution of Li ions in the electrode at high discharge current rates. The continuum model unravels that the solution phase diffusion limitation is the main factor inhibiting the performance of thick electrodes at high current rates and the Li4Ti5O12 anode is the limiting electrode. These findings using continuum models provide guidance for and accelerate the optimization of electrode architecture for enhancing the performance of lithium-ion batteries.

Combined effects of electrophoresis and thermophoresis in Darcy Forchheimer flow of trihybrid nanofluid over a Riga plate: Yamada-Ota and Xue models

The physical phenomena of Darcy-Forchheimer flow of trihybrid nanofluid over a Riga plate with the influence of electrophoresis and thermophoresis on the particle deposition and non-uniform heat generation in a porous medium is discussed in this article. In a Marangoni convective flow, this study examined the impact of electrophoresis and thermophoresis on the rate at which aerosol particles deposited across a Riga plate. One of the most basic processes for moving tiny particles across a temperature gradient is known as thermophoresis particle deposition, and it is significant to both aero-solution and electrical engineering. Trihybrid nanofluid containing Cobalt iron oxide (COFe2O4), Manganese Zinc iron oxide (MnZnFeO4) and Molybdenum disulfides (MOS2) nanoparticles, and based fluid water is used. For the case of trihybrid nanoparticles, the Xue and Yamada-Ota nanofluid models have been expanded. The objective of this envisaged model is to compare the performance of two renowned ternary hybrid nanofluid models namely Xue and Yamada–Ota. The required similarity transformations are used to translate the set of governing equations into a collection of ODEs. The homotopy analysis method (HAM) is used to analytically solve these simplified equations. For the embedded non-dimensional parameters, the graphic exploration of the velocity, concentration and thermal fields is made. The study's primary outcomes are that as the Marangoni convection parameter is increased, the velocity profile is improved and the temperature and concentration distributions are lowered. The concentration profile decreases with increasing electrophoretic parameter, however the opposite behavior is seen with increasing electrophoretic parameter.

Disaster evaluation of hydrogen explosion leakage from industrial-scale non-metallic pipeline

This work is aimed at evaluating the disaster consequence of leaked hydrogen explosion from the industrial-scale non-metallic pipeline. The flame evolution and explosion overpressure are experimentally obtained. A standard k-ε turbulence model and a beta flame model is established to analyze the explosion overpressure generation. The results indicated that whether there is an external ignition source or not, the hydrogen explosion still occurs when the high-pressure hydrogen leaks from non-metal pipelines. The formation of three overpressure peaks could be attributed to the non-metallic pipeline rupture, leaked hydrogen explosion and sand soil spread. The explosion overpressure peaks continue to decrease with increasing monitoring point distance. The moving speed of explosion overpressure is between 349.34 m/s and 436.21 m/s. The leaked hydrogen concentration outside non-metallic pipeline could reach up to about 10% and the explosion overpressure generation is dependent on the concentration distribution.

Study on Sulfide Ore Dust Dispersion and Dust Reduction Measures Based on Simulation

Sulfide ore dust is at risk of explosion. To analyze the concentration distribution of sulfide ore dust in the ore loading, transporting, and unloading operations, the migration and dispersion processes of sulfide ore dust were simulated by using FLUENT software and taking the dust generation rate, roadway air velocity, and dust source position as variables. The concentration of sulfide ore dust was analyzed from the four-dimensional perspective of time and space. The results show that the maximum concentration of sulfide ore dust is determined by the dust generation rate. The roadway air velocity exhibits dual effects on the migration and deposition of sulfide ore dust. The ore loading position significantly impacts the distribution of sulfide ore dust, manifesting in varying degrees of superposition effects. Based on the results, this paper proposes a comprehensive dust reduction measure in the form of water curtain and dynamic ventilation, effectively minimizing the concentration of sulfide mine dust within the roadway.

Experimental study of the effect of different pulse charging patterns on lithium-ion battery charging

This study aims to experimentally investigate the impact of different pulse charging patterns on the charging time and performance of lithium-ion batteries at room temperature. Experimental results indicate that most pulse charging protocols have a positive impact on shortening the total charging time compared to the CC-CV charging method with the same input charge capacity. This effect is observed not only in LFP batteries but also in NMC batteries. Three pulse charging patterns are studied: constant current charge (C–C), charge rest (C–R), and charge discharge (C-D). The C-D mode results in the shortest charging time and the smallest cell internal resistance. Compared to the 1C CC-CV baseline, the pulse C-D mode reduces the charging time by approximately 6.8 %, decreases the average pulse internal resistance by about 17.5 %, and increases the remaining discharge capacity ratio by 3.76 % after 800 cycles. Additionally, a pseudo-2D physics model is used to study the internal effects on the battery using the pulse C-D mode. The results show that using the pulse charging method (C-D) results in a more even distribution of electrolyte salt concentration and electrode particle lithium concentration across the cell, thereby improving battery performance.