Compulsory Land Acquisition Research Articles

Impact of Compulsory Land Acquisition for Public Infrastructure on Project Communities’ Livelihoods and Environment in Delta State, Nigeria

Land acquisition for the construction of road infrastructure in Delta State always faces resistance from the affected communities, especially related to the results of the assessment of compensation. This protest from project communities is an indication of a gap on the impact on the quality of life of the affected claimants. This paper examines the impact of land acquisition on the livelihood and environment of people whose lands were acquired as a consequence of accelerating road infrastructural development policy in Delta. The study uses data collected from secondary sources and questionnaires administered on 180 affected claimants in Delta State selected from nine (9) communities across the state using a multistage sampling procedure. The study found that acquisition has a negative effect on affected people’s livelihood such as landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, increased morbidity, food insecurity, loss of access to common property, and social disarticulation. The study recommended that the government should ensure that some of these vexed issues on compulsory land acquisition related to landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, increased morbidity, food insecurity, etc. are addressed.

EMPIRICAL STUDY OF LAND ACQUISITION IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA: ACHIEVING EQUILIBRIUM ON COMPETING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INTERESTS

The right to own property is an intrinsic human right that grants ownership and enjoyment to owners. The property right, however,is not absolute because it is subject to the state’s authority to compulsorily acquire land that is in private hands, which is referredto as land acquisition. Land acquisition refers to the power granted to the state government to obtain privately owned land for a publicpurpose, in exchange for fair compensation (Keith et al., 2008). Land acquisition is an essential strategy for the state to address the limited availability of land when it is necessary to create railways, airports, or any other infrastructure for the benefit of the public (Jonathan, 2012). Nevertheless, the process of acquiring land is a lengthy procedure that has a significant influence on the local community. This is because it involves conflicting interests between the government that is seemingly acting on behalf of the general public, and the very public who are affected by the acquisition itself. Therefore, the land acquisition system is supposed to be designed as a method of reconciling these conflicting interests. Despite this ideal purpose, numerous countries, particularly in emerging nations like Malaysia, face challenges in achieving a harmonious equilibrium between the conflicting public and private interests. These challenges arise from inadequate legislative safeguards and a conventional hierarchical approach adopted by the government branches of the state (Ghimire et al., 2017). The public aspect is usually legally defined, but private perspectives may not always be apparent. In order to achieve the right balance between conflicting public and private interests, this study aims to examine the perspectives of the individuals, i.e., the landowners who are directly affected by the land acquisition. This study examines their perceptions and attitudes towards the whole process and procedures of the land acquisition to which they were subjected, as well as their corresponding responses and willingness to make sacrifices in pursuit of the higher objectives of the state. To achieve this goal, a questionnaire survey has been used as the methodology of collecting data from the landowners and the results are presented using descriptive analysis. The outcome demonstrated that whenever the state exercises the power of land acquisition, the balance tends to side with the interest of the public rather than the private interests of the affected individuals, both in law and in practice. In addition, Malaysia became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1957. Hence, it is crucial to examine the principles of compulsory land acquisition as delineated by the United Nations study (Keith et al., 2008). The final section of this article provides an analysis of the findings and then make recommendations by referring to Australia’s best practices for adoption in Peninsular Malaysia. The methodologies employed in this study are the data collection method and comparative legal analysis.

Examining Participation of Expropriated Owners in Compulsory Land Acquisition for the Western Corridor Gas Infrastructure Project in Ghana

The participation of expropriated owners in compulsory land acquisition processes is necessary to maximise benefits, minimize the negative consequences and prevent actions or omissions associated with the implementation of the expropriation order. The procedure for compulsory land acquisition in Ghana starts with the government declaring an intention to acquire any parcel(s) of land within the territory of Ghana and ends with the resolution of inconsistencies and conflicts arising out of the acquisition. The main objective of the study was to investigate the extent of participation by expropriated owners of the Nzema East Municipality and the Ellembelle District in the compulsory land acquisition process for the Western Corridor Gas Infrastructure Project. Underpinned by the citizen participation theory, the study adopted the mixed methods research design. The quantitative data was collected through a survey from sampled expropriated persons in 24 affected communities of the study area while the qualitative data was obtained through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The study revealed that the mode of engagement between the expropriated persons and the expropriators was through information sharing, thereby limiting the participation exercise to the first rung of the citizen's participation theory. As a recommendation, the Lands Commission should improve community participation in the expropriation order by ensuring information flow and feedback at any stage of the acquisition process.

Exploring the psychological and emotional burden of compulsory acquisition: a case study of New Akrade-Mpakadan, Ghana

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the psychological, emotional and equity implications of compulsory acquisition, evaluate the adequacy of compensation in mitigating those consequences and assess the sustainability of cash compensation for future generations.Design/methodology/approachA case study approach was operationalised to investigate the experiences of 40 project-affected persons (PAPs) four years after a compulsory acquisition project in Ghana’s New Akrade-Mpakadan region for the construction of a railway line. These perspectives were analysed through descriptive statistics and thematic analyses using the NVivo software. Figures and a holistic framework were adopted to report the identified issues.FindingsOverall, only 25% of PAPs received formal communication prior to the acquisition, and only 10.3% have been fully compensated four years later. Despite the acquiring body initiating the marking of properties and compensation assessment in 2019, no payments were made until 2021. This induced emotional responses of distress, loss, uncertainty, stress and sadness, which was further exacerbated by feelings of hopelessness because there was no platform to voice concerns or pursue arbitration. Although PAPs were only offered compensation in the form of single monetary payments, a third would have preferred re-settlement.Research limitations/implicationsBy exploring the emotional and psychological effects of compulsory land acquisition, the study adds a new dimension to understanding its consequences. This may spark more interest, debate and discourse amongst researchers and policymakers and lead to the creation or enhancement of existing policy and legal measures to address the needs of PAPs in compulsory acquisition projects in developing countries.Originality/valueThe financial consequences of eminent domain are well documented, but this study explored the psychological, emotional and equity implications of the practice under conditions of weak regulatory frameworks. The adequacy of single lump-sum compensations was also explored to highlight preferred alternatives to ensure fairness for generations unborn.

Participation and Perception of Project Affected People in SIA Process under RFCTLARR Act 2013

Undoubtedly, growing urbanisation, increasing of infrastructure requirement and rapid economic development has imposed high pressure on land in India. Private land is regularly acquired for both State-sponsored development and private projects, which is increasingly become contentious. Compulsory acquisition of land till the end of December 2013 is primarily governed by the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, which is century-old legislation enacted in the very different social, economic and political milieu. Post-independence period Indian Government has not fundamentally changed the acquisition policy to reflect the values and needs of our times, which has resulted in legal, social, cultural, economic and political fallouts. Land Acquisition Act, 1894 is needed for public purpose and economic development, but it is deficient in many respects. In this background the colonial Land Acquisition Act, 1894 was repealed and replaced by the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act.2013. It is now settled that whatever State or Government acquires land from its citizens for public purpose, it has power to do so. The jurisprudence that has developed around colonial Land Acquisition Ac, 1894 over the years on this subject has made the citizen, a subject. The colonial mind-set is that all pervasive under the Act was reflected in practice and even the judiciary in some cases has inadvertently furthered this notion. Thus, it becomes imperative to scrutinize the law and test it, against the contemporary democratic values. However, the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 made an attempt to balance within the larger political context of land acquisition in India. Through the land acquisition how people be affected to be estimated by SIA study suggested in The RFCTLARR Act 2013. But the entire SIA process can be succeed when all the stakeholders in general and the project affected people or families in particular to be participated fully during the implementation of the project. The current paper have studied the participation and perception of project affected families in different projects implemented by Government of Odisha.

Land dispossession, aspirational asymmetries and dilemmas of the rural youth

ABSTRACT Compulsory land acquisition has time and again resulted in disruption of local communities in multiple ways. However, this process has often been justified as an important transitional stage for rural populations to move towards urbanisation and development. This paper looks at the case of a village in district Faridabad (in the state of Haryana), where land was acquired for purposes of setting up an Industrial Model Township (IMT). It is argued that land dispossession, in the case of prosperous rural communities, has resulted in the loss of livelihood and location. While the transition from owners to rentiers has been particularly traumatic for the older generation, the younger generation face new dilemmas pertaining to their identity and livelihood choices. Assured rent has enhanced family incomes. This has reduced the need to engage with agriculture which youth from the dominant castes wished to relinquish even otherwise. However, the jobs that are available are not commensurate to the social status that the youth from the dominant castes aspire for. Apart from these aspirational asymmetries, monetisation of assets has unleashed consumerism, conspicuous consumption and an identity crisis for the youth.

Assessment of Claimants’ Attitudes towards Compulsory Land Acquisition and Compensation in Osogbo, Nigeria

Comprehending the attitudes of claimants towards compulsory land acquisition and compensation is crucial in assessing the overall efficacy of the process. This exploration aids not only in gauging public sentiment but also in shaping policies and approaches that foster cooperation and equitable outcomes. This study focused on the assessment of claimants’ attitudes towards compulsory land acquisition in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria. Data on claimants were obtained from 244 landholders whose lands were compulsorily acquired for rail track construction at Phase I, Osogbo. Frequency distribution, weighted mean scores, and factor analysis were employed to analyze the collected data in order to examine the behaviors exhibited by claimants and the factors contributing to those behaviors. The study revealed that the lack of a resettlement plan, inadequate time given for relocation, and insufficient compensation award to replace assets were triggers for the various behaviors exhibited by claimants. Factor analysis was used to analyse a 14-item factor instrument employed to examine the factors influencing claimants' behavioral attitudes toward compulsory land acquisition and compensation in the study area. The result yielded four distinct factors which include “Preliminary Factors leading to Inadequate Compensation” as Factor 1, "Factors Leading to Resistance by Claimants," as Factor 2, "Factors Leading to Inadequate Relay of Notices," and "Inadequacies in the provisions of the Land Use Act on Valuation Methods for Compulsory Land Acquisition and Compensation," as Factors 3 and 4 respectively. The study recommended that the Land Use Act be amended to align with present-day realities, incorporating considerations for land values and associated impacts, including the costs of claimants' relocation. This would alleviate the stress and social challenges faced by those affected by land acquisition, dousing the society tensions associated with it.

Prerequisites and Factors for Effective and Efficient Implementation of Land Pooling/Reconstitution: Learnings from Asian Countries

The land pooling/readjustment (LP/R) technique has been extensively used for centuries for fostering planned urban development in various developing and developed countries. In the recent past LP/R models have emerged in several Indian states and cities as an alternate to compulsory land acquisition. These include land pooling in Raipur, Chhattisgarh through the Town Development Scheme - 2015, the land pooling policy for Delhi - 2013, land readjustment and land pooling in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra - 2014, and land pooling for Amravati, Andhra Pradesh - 2015. There are several factors that could adversely affect the implementation of LP/R projects and different situations would require different kinds of contextually relevant approaches for effective implementation of LP/R projects. Given the emerging LP/R models in several Indian states as an alternative to compulsory land acquisition, this article analyses the opportunities and constraints as recorded in literature around the world, with a focus on Asian countries, to identify the prerequisites and factors for effective and efficient implementation of the LP/R mechanism.

A Historical Overview of Compulsory Acquisition of Land in Ghana

A Historical Overview of Compulsory Acquisition of Land in Ghana

A Note on the Land Acquisition Act of Singapore and Social Re-Engineering

Land Acquisition Act (LAA) of Singapore regulates the compulsory acquisition of land in Singapore. This paper looks at LAA and its’ role in shifting the land ownership structure in Singapore and the resultant social re-engineering. The LAA had four prominent features which were, (1) power to obtain private land by the state, (2) inability of affected landowners to object the compulsory acquisition, (3) landowners being compensated much less than market value (prior to 2007), and (4) the formation of an Appeals Board to formally judge on compensations. The research would like to reveal LAA and its role in changing the land ownership structure in Singapore and the resultant social re-engineering. The method of writing this article uses literature reviews from journals and references related to Land Acquisition Act. Search for literature on performance using Google Scholar and other relevant platforms. The researcher also used other relevant documents, including physical documents, to gain more knowledge on the topic discussed. The LAA indeed resulted in the lives of many to be better-off but it was at the expense of a few wealthy families in Singapore.

Just Compensation in Korea’s Land Takings

This paper reviews grounds for just compensation and the market value standard in compulsory land acquisition, and then identifies limitations in the Korea’s practices on compensation appraisal. In addition, the actual compensation level in Korea is empirically examined using available data. Results show that the appraisal of land compensation tend to fall short of the level of market-value-based compensation. The main reasons in terms of methods are two-fold. First, compensation is calculated on the basis of Officially Assessed Land Prices (OALP), which is estimated to be 40~50% of observed market price. Second, the compensation amount is set at the ‘past’ and not the ‘current’ market value by excessively excluding development surplus arising from the project to be promoted. As an ultimate remedy, this paper discusses a change in land compensation appraisal method, that utilizes market transaction prices more directly rather than relying on the OALP. As a supplementary measure in the transition period, an institutional framework is recommended to allow active adjustments to the primary compensation appraisal according to circumstances of the target land.

STRIKING THE RIGHT BALANCE BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INTERESTS IN LAND ACQUISITION: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND POSITION IN UNITED STATES, AUSTRALIA AND MALAYSIA

The right to own property is an intrinsic human right that grants ownership and enjoyment to the landowners. The right to property is not absolute, however, because it is subject to the state's authority to acquire the private land. Land acquisition, as the term implies, is the power given to the state to acquire any privately owned land for a public purpose in consideration for adequate compensation.[1] Land acquisition is a critical development tool for the state to overcome the land scarcity when it is required to establish railways, airports or any infrastructure for the public good. On the other hand, land acquisition is a labourious process affecting a wide range of stakeholders. It often involves competing interests between the state (representing the general public) and impacted persons towards their private property. As a result, the land acquisition regime is ostensibly a way of balancing competing interests. However, many countries especially developing nations are having difficulties in striking a balance between public and private interests due to a lack of legal protection and a traditional top-down approach by the state's government branches.[2] This article analyses the approaches taken by the United States, Australia and Malaysia in maintaining the balance in land acquisition. The methodology employed in this study is primarily focused on comparative legal analysis. Present research has shown that, there is little attention given to the balance of rights between the public and private interests in Malaysian land acquisition laws. [1] Keith, Simon, Patrick McAuslan, Rachael Knight, Jonathon Lindsay, Paul Munro-Faure, David Palmer, and L. Spannenberg, "Compulsory acquisition of land and compensation," FAO Land Tenure Studies, 10 (2008): 7-8. [2] See generally, Ghimire, Subash, Arbind Tuladhar, and Sagar Raj Sharma. "Governance in land acquisition and compensation for infrastructure development." American Journal of Civil Engineering 5, no. 3 (2017): 169-178; Rose, Hadley, Frank Mugisha, Andrews Kananga, and Daniel Clay. "Implementation of Rwanda’s Expropriation Law and Its Outcomes on the Population." In Proceedings of the Annual World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty, Washington, DC, USA, (2016): 14-18.

Compulsory Acquisition of Land (Private Property) in Nigeria: Prioritizing Public Interest over Private Interest

Compulsory acquisition of land (private property) is permitted under Nigerian law, but such acquisition must be conducted in accordance with the prescriptions of law. A fundamental criterion in a compulsory acquisition is the compliance with the public purpose requirement. Increasingly, state governments in Nigeria have been engaging in massive land grabbing for many reasons that tend to challenge the public purpose requirement. In certain cases, including governments’ acquisition for mass housing projects, the resultant beneficiaries are far from qualifying for the ascription of the term ‘public’ for the purpose of compliance with the public purpose requirement. This casts doubt on the acquiring authority’s compliance with the extant law. Using a doctrinal methodology, this paper argues for the prioritization of public interest over private interest. The paper aims to provide a roadmap for ensuring that public interest requirement reigns supreme in any compulsory acquisition in Nigeria.

Tragedy of the Anticommons (ToA) in Agricultural Land Partition involving Fragmented Co-proprietorships: An Analysis of Malaysian Case Laws

There is a lack of understanding of the theory of the Tragedy of the Anticommons (ToA), a type of coordination breakdown or a hold-out problem involving multiple fragmented co-proprietorships with undivided shares, in the land partition context. This paper, hence, discusses how ToA occurs particularly in the agricultural land partition that is primarily governed under the National Land Code 1965 and proposes potential legal and non-legal approaches and mechanisms to address the land tragedy. An abductive content analysis of (9) case laws extracted from the LexisNexis database was performed through which themes and codes were developed to explain how ToA hindering land partition takes place. Subsequently, judicial decisions in solving disputes arising from land partition and existing best practices in dealing with the tragedy were reviewed. The case laws review indicated that unsuccessful agricultural land partition associated with high transaction costs in securing co-proprietors consensus is a form of simultaneous ToA, that most of the unpartitioned land (anticommons) may be subject to underinvestment (land mismanagement) and disuse. Key factors leading to disagreement among co-proprietors and consequently ToA are as follows: (i) unequal (unfair) proportion or shares of land; (ii) uneven geographical partition and spatial distribution of government reserves; and (iii) potential damages and negative effects (e.g., loss of income and property). To address ToA, these are legal mechanisms proposed: statutory enforcement of the National Land Code (NLC) 1965 (via land forfeiture and reversion), the Land Acquisition Act (LAA) 1960 on compulsory land acquisition, and judicial decisions (e.g., land partitions may take place if it is fairly distributed and made by the majority shareholders), while non-legal approaches cover negotiation and arbitration; en-bloc sales (partition); collective action through enhanced social capital; and imposition of a tax on underutilised land. By showcasing various agricultural anticommons tragedies and their potential negative externalities in the land partition context, this paper offers policy and management insights that help land officers and local authorities ensure the maximum efficiency and productivity (i.e., highest and best use) of the land

SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND COMPENSATION IN COMPULSORY LAND ACQUISITION: DOSE IT MATTERS ON SATISFACTION

Compensating for different types of losses are continuously experiencing in Sri Lanka due to types of disasters or compulsory land acquisition. The land Acquisition Act No. 09 of 1950 makes the provision to acquire the lands from private landowners for the public interest and to pay the monetary compensation to recover the losses. The National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) was intended to address involuntary resettlement, integrating land acquisition and payment of compensation. However, there is a real distrust about satisfaction of the victims on the end results mainly based on many aspects. In fact, the findings vary from place to place. Therefore, this paper aims to critically analyze the factors representing of the social sustainabilityconcept in compensation procedure of compulsory land acquisition of Sri Lanka, expressly reviewing the reservoir development project of Yan Oya and its resettlement community. Fivepoint Likert scale questionnaire was used to collect data from thirty re-settlers selected from three locations on nine criteria. Further, six prominent community leaders were interviewed forfurther confirmation. The findings reveal those five factors representing social sustainability aspect were successful to some extent, while there were significant inconsistencies amongst assessed components within individual cases. Hence, the study reveals that pure monetary compensation process was unsuccessful since it represents the inadequacy to cover all losses ofvictims. Thus, for a coverage of total loss a resettling strategy is essential while with more concerns to the social sustainability aspects.
 Keywords: Compensation, Compulsory land acquisition, Resettlement strategy, Satisfaction,Social sustainability.

Compensation for Compulsory Land Acquisition; Does Social Sustainability Matters on Satisfaction

Payment of compensation for different types of losses are continuously experiencing in Sri Lanka. One of the typical aspects is the compulsory land acquisition. Government acquires the lands from private landowners for providing infrastructure in terms of public interest and proceeds to pay the monetary compensation recovering the losses while the National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) intends to address involuntary resettlement because of land acquisition. However, distrusting is arising on satisfaction of the victims of this process and no evidence how far the social sustainability concept is addressed. Therefore, this paper aims to analyze the determinants of satisfaction while focusing on the factors representing the social sustainability concept in compensation procedure of compulsory land acquisition of Sri Lanka. For acquiring data, questionnaire survey was conducted with 30 re-settlers who were the victims of government land acquisition for a reservoir project and an interview was carried out with prominent community leaders on 09 factors. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a content analysis. The findings reveal that social sustainability aspects of neighborhood environment, education, market availability, electricity, and public health services were successful to some extent, while there were significant inconsistencies amongst assessed components within individual cases. Hence, the study reveals that pure monetary compensation process was unsuccessful since it represents the inadequacy to cover all losses of victims. Thus, for a total loss a resettling strategy is essential along with high concentration on the social sustainability aspects. Keywords: Compulsory Land Acquisition, Involuntary Resettlement Policy, Payment of Compensation, Social Sustainability Concept, Satisfaction

Measuring Inadequacy in Compensation for the Compulsory Acquisition of Land: Evidence from Bengaluru, India

Taking inspiration from the longstanding problem of inadequate compensation for the compulsory acquisition of private land for a public purpose, this research estimates the economic value of (i) future development potential of land or ‘hope value’; and (ii) depreciation in property value due to acquisition notification or ‘blight’. Using empirical data on property transactions conducted in the Bengaluru Mysore Infrastructure Corridor (BMIC) project area and registered with sub-registrar offices in Bengaluru India during 2007–14, this research innovatively combines the duration model and hedonic price model to estimate the above. Results indicate that the current mechanisms for compensation are inadequately compensating for the land. The loss of the hope value ranges between 2.39 to 8.35 times the market value of agricultural land in 2006 and loss due to blight is approximately 31 percent. Compensating for these losses ex-ante should induce fairness in the compulsory acquisition process and reduce arbitrariness in the valuation of essential components of a compensation package, thus unburdening the valuation responsibilities of the legal institutions. These findings empirically support the argument of payment of additional monetary compensation to the market value of land and provide a rational measure of the same.

The Constitutionality of Compulsory Land Acquisition in Vietnam: Issues and Recommendations

Abstract This article identifies and analyzes the theoretical, constitutional, and practical bases for governmental land acquisition in Vietnam from a comparative perspective. The authors contrast political ideologies of private ownership and public interests to elucidate the grounds for compulsory acquisition of property for public uses. By reviewing constitutional provisions on compulsory land acquisition in several countries (Singapore, Korea, Australia, India, and the United States), and exploring Vietnam’s constitutional provisions on land acquisition for national defense, security and socio-economic development, this article analyzes some key themes of purposes, procedure, and compensation. The paper then suggests specific changes to Vietnam’s Land Law to increase transparency and to provide more legal safeguards for private users of property when government entities recover privately-used land for public purposes.

Contextualising Compulsory Land Acquisition Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development in Burundi

Compulsory land acquisition is inevitable for developing countries so that they can implement projects in urban areas for the quest of sustainable urban development. However, the decisions on land acquisition have to be contextualised so that the PAPs should be protected from disruptions and loss of livelihoods that may lead to uncertain sustainable urban development. This paper examines two projects implemented in Bujumbura City through compulsory land acquisition. A desk review and checklist question have been mobilised to collect data that are source of information presented herein. The results show that compulsory purchase, purchase by agreement and the combination of the two have been applied to acquire land. Furthermore, these approaches caused the eruption of informal settlements and petty trading activities where PAPs were involved in. Therefore, the paper recommends to have a contextualised approach in the process of compulsory land acquisition.

Collaborative Governance in Land Acquisition and Aggregation Practices: The Impacts on Neighbourhood Functionalities in Tanzania

In urban development projects, the amount of land needs to be large enough to support not only the intended development but also the subsequent well-functioning of the neighbourhood through enhanced accessibility, service provision and liveability in general. Obtaining land for public goods and services at neighbourhood level may however be difficult especially in developing countries’ cities where the formal-informal continuum hampers the effective urban planning and development. This is attributed to the fact that a larger part of land in these cities is occupied and any public good or service provision initiative must be through either compulsory land acquisition or land aggregation approaches. In either approach there are pros and cons towards realising the well-functioning of the neighbourhood in terms accessibility, recreation, social services and other public amenities. Based on non-parametric tests of neighbourhood functionality differences across land access modalities, the survey data across wards in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania it has been revealed that government action through compulsory acquisition of land may be justifiable in as much as the functioning of social and physical infrastructure is concerned but can limitedly be relied upon in making such facilities available in the first place. Voluntary contribution of land, open market purchase and even the voluntary contribution of cash are working better than compulsory acquisition of land for that purpose. Further evidence alludes to the fact that compulsory acquisition of land is not only detrimental to neighbourhood social networks but also can worsen neighbourhood level economic opportunities. As such alternatives to compulsory acquisition need be used in well-developed inner city neighbourhoods while some combination of compulsory or voluntary land and cash contributions are well suited in outskirt neighbourhoods.