Comprehensive Durability Research Articles

Durability assessment of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) and FRP grid-reinforced UHPC plates under marine environments

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) structures not only tackle the issue of insufficient stiffness encountered in FRP reinforced normal concrete structures, but also offer a promising solution to address the durability challenges present in conventional reinforced concrete structures. While some studies have explored the mechanical properties of FRP reinforced UHPC (referred to as FRU), their durability performance remains unexplored. This paper presents a comprehensive durability assessment of FRU and UHPC plates, incorporating steel and polyethylene (PE) fibers, to compare their performance under simulated marine conditions, along with a durability evaluation of the corresponding UHPC cylinders and FRP grid samples. Tensile retention strengths of UHPC and FRU plates were evaluated after exposure. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses were employed to examine fracture surfaces. The results indicate that carbon FRP (CFRP) grids significantly enhanced the tensile performance of UHPC, showcasing improvements in tensile strength, multiple-cracking, and strain-hardening behaviors. Seawater exposure led to evident reductions in the tensile strength of UHPC plates, particularly those incorporating steel fibers. Conversely, FRU plates exhibited much smaller decreases, especially those reinforced with polyethylene (PE) fibers. This study highlights the suitability of FRU reinforced with PE fibers for marine infrastructures.

Comprehensive durability assessment of in-service concrete bridges based on combination weighting and extenics cloud model

In recent years, with the continuous development of urban transportation, the durability of concrete bridge structures has become increasingly prominent. Many in-service concrete bridges exhibit issues such as cracks, excessive deflection, and a significant reduction in load-bearing capacity during their service life. To meet the requirements of sustainable development, it is urgent to assess the durability of bridges accurately. Therefore, this paper establishes a scientific and reliable evaluation index system for the durability of in-service concrete bridges. Based on a review of the literature and relevant standards and specifications, this paper establishes an evaluation index system for the durability of in-service concrete bridges and calculates the weights using a combination weighting method. The durability of the bridges is assessed using the extension cloud model theory, and MATLAB is utilized for efficient and accurate computation and analysis, ultimately determining the durability grades of the bridges. The method was applied to the durability assessment of five in-service concrete bridges, and the results were in high agreement with the measured data, proving its effectiveness and accuracy. The research results provide a scientific basis for the management and maintenance of concrete bridges, which can help extend their service life. Future studies will expand the sample to cover more bridge types to comprehensively assess and enhance the durability of bridges.

Silicate-lunar regolith composite: A vacuum self-hardened and comprehensively durable extraterrestrial construction material

Extraterrestrial exploration, represented by Lunar base construction, has been promoted worldwide as a multi-disciplinary, cutting-edge and strategic issue. Herein we proposed a novel extraterrestrial construction material composed of Lunar/Martian regolith simulants and only 4 wt% of silicate adhesive. This silicate-regolith composite can be directly self-hardened in vacuum within 4.5 h without any curing to achieve 29 MPa of hardening strength. Meanwhile, it shows comprehensive durability with stable microstructures and >70 % of residual strength against long-term vacuum exposure, huge temperature difference and intense γ-ray and proton radiations. Its in-situ solidification and durability originate from vacuum dehydration, where silica clusters in solution spontaneously cohere into a solid network with strong connections of silica tetrahedra and bound water. A moderate silicate modulus around 2.5 and appropriate modifications can disperse finer silica clusters to increase oligomer silica units in solution and enhance hardening strength. Compared with lunar geopolymer and other existing extraterrestrial construction materials, this vacuum self-hardening composite allows a cryogenic preparation even below −40 ℃ using diverse regolith with a wide range of compositions and sizes, proposing a facile, durable and versatile solution towards in-situ extraterrestrial constructions.

Advances in CMOS Image Sensors and Transistors Leveraging Stochastic Nanomagnets: A Comprehensive Review

Accurate modeling and assessment of complex Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) imaging sensors and transistors, in conjunction with randomized nanomagnets for distributed computation in radiated environments, are crucial for the development of robust electronic systems. The effectiveness and resilience of these intricate parts to radiation exposure is the subject of this study, which is becoming more and more important in applications including space missions, power plants, and high-altitude flying. To take into account the interaction between CMOS technology and the unpredictable behavior of nanomagnets, a comprehensive durability modeling technique is required. The methodology that has been suggested evaluates the susceptibility of image detectors and transistors to malfunctions caused by radiation, such as dislocation damage, single-event upsets (SEUs), and impacts of total ionizing dose (TID). The impact of radiation on the power characteristics and operational dependability of these components is investigated using state-of-the-art modeling tools and experimental data. The findings suggest that random nanomagnets can improve distributed computing devices' resistance to radiation-induced failures. Through the provision of insights into reliability challenges and solutions for enhanced CMOS image sensors and transistors, this work advances the field of radiation-tolerant technologies. Future electronic device developers will find the suggested reliability modeling and evaluation methodology to be a useful resource for creating reliable devices that can resist harsh radioactive environments. Keywords— Reliability Modeling; CMOS Image Sensors; Radiation Environment; Advanced Technology Node; Transistor Structures; Stochastic Nanomagnets; Heterogeneous Computing; Probabilistic Inference

Durability of partially cured GFRP reinforcing bars in alkaline environments with or without sustained tensile load

Corrosion of steel reinforcing bars (rebars) in reinforced concrete structures can be addressed by using corrosion-resistant materials like Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP). However, in France, FRP rebars are primarily restricted to temporary applications due to lack of comprehensive durability data. While numerous studies have explored FRP durability in alkaline environments, understanding the combined effect of alkali ions and sustained loading remains limited. Furthermore, the impact of incomplete matrix curing on the long-term performance of FRP rebars is limited.Accordingly, this paper investigates the durability of Glass FRP (GFRP) rebars exposed to alkali environments at varying temperatures. A batch of partially cured rebars was selected for this study, with part of them undergoing post-curing to investigate the effect of curing state on the ageing behaviour. Additionally, some partially cured specimens were subjected to combined sustained tensile loading at 20 % and 40 % of ultimate strength. Mechanical, physico-chemical and microstructural characterizations were conducted after various exposure durations. Results revealed that incomplete curing minimally impacted long-term tensile properties but significantly affected the interlaminar shear strength of aged rebars. Moreover, applying a combined load had little influence on residual properties at 20°C but led to rapid reduction in GFRP residual tensile strength at higher ageing temperatures (40 and 60°C).

A study on estimating deterioration in multi recycled aggregate concrete using surface imaging techniques

The study presents a novel method for sustainable construction using multi-recycled concrete, embracing a cradle-to-cradle approach. It utilies image analysis to detect concrete deterioration due to different chemical exposures. It also demonstrates the effectiveness of the Compressible Packing Method in improving recycled aggregate properties and reducing cement content for sustainable concrete production. The image-based colour stability analysis for determining Hue (H), Saturation (S), and Intensity (I) values reveals the significant deterioration is caused by sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid exposures relevant to field applications. A unified factor termed as Durability Loss Factor (DLF) provides a comprehensive metric for assessing deterioration, with sulphuric acid exposure resulting in the most substantial deterioration. Also, there is a strong correlation between residual strength of concrete specimen and the parameters governing image analysis in the current study. These findings offer valuable insights into mix design strategies, colour-based indicators of deterioration, and the development of a comprehensive Durability Loss Factor for multi-recycled concrete.

Dual-Energy-Barrier Stable Superhydrophobic Structures for Long Icing Delay.

Using superhydrophobic surfaces (SHSs) with the water-repellent Cassie-Baxter (CB) state is widely acknowledged as an effective approach for anti-icing performances. Nonetheless, the CB state is susceptible to diverse physical phenomena (e.g., vapor condensation, gas contraction, etc.) at low temperatures, resulting in the transition to the sticky Wenzel state and the loss of anti-icing capabilities. SHSs with various micronanostructures have been empirically examined for enhancing the CB stability; however, the energy barrier transits from the metastable CB state to the stable Wenzel state and thus the CB stability enhancement is currently not enough to guarantee a well and appliable anti-icing performance at low temperatures. Here, we proposed a dual-energy-barrier design strategy on superhydrophobic micronanostructures. Rather than the typical single energy barrier of the conventional CB-to-Wenzel transition, we introduced two CB states (i.e., CB I and CB II), where the state transition needed to go through CB I and CB II then to Wenzel state, thus significantly improving the entire CB stability. We applied ultrafast laser to fabricate this dual-energy-barrier micronanostructures, established a theoretical framework, and performed a series of experiments. The anti-icing performances were exhibited with long delay icing times (over 27,000 s) and low ice-adhesion strengths (0.9 kPa). The kinetic mechanism underpinning the enhanced CB anti-icing stability was elucidated and attributed to the preferential liquid pinning in the shallow closed structures, enabling the higher CB-Wenzel transition energy barrier to sustain the CB state. Comprehensive durability tests further corroborated the potentials of the designed dual-energy-barrier structures for anti-icing applications.

Anion‐Stabilized Precursor Inks Toward Efficient and Reproducible Air‐Processed Perovskite Solar Cells

AbstractDespite the outperforming power conversion efficiency of low‐temperature and solution‐processed perovskite solar cells (PSCs) realized over the past decades, the undesirable stability from precursor inks to resultant devices and harsh preparation requirements still restrain their industrial production and practical deployment. Herein, an anion stabilization strategy is developed to achieve the comprehensive durability of perovskite photovoltaics throughout the whole two‐step air‐processed procedure. The effect of interionic bonding strengths on the ink properties, film crystallization, and photovoltaic performances is in‐depth explored and revealed. The pseudohalide bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ions (TFSI−) not only improve the dispersion and stabilities of lead polyhalides and organic salt inks via strong electron‐withdrawing/donating chemical sites, but also realize high composition uniformity and preferential crystal growth of subsequent deposited perovskite layers by tuning the precursor reactivity and surface absorption. Ultimately, the optimizing PSCs deliver a superior efficiency of 24.16%, accompanied by notably improved long‐term stability toward extreme environmental and mechanical stimuli with lead leakage suppression. This work opens up a promising avenue toward reproducible air preparation of highly efficient, stable, and environmentally friendly perovskite optoelectronic devices via precise modulation of precursor properties.

A Comprehensive Investigation for the Production of Optimized Interlocking Compressed Earthen Bricks with Varying Proportions of Stabilizer, Water, and Fine Aggregate

The global construction industry is shifting toward eco‐friendly building materials to reduce environmental impact while ensuring affordability, energy efficiency, and resource conservation. Interlocking compressed earthen bricks (ICEBs) offer a sustainable alternative to traditional bricks. However, ICEB composition significantly impacts their performance. This study investigates the interplay of stabilizer, water, and fine aggregate content to optimize ICEBs. Soil properties were assessed through particle size gradation analysis, Atterberg limits, and the modified Proctor test. ICEBs were manufactured using cement as a stabilizer, with various combinations of stabilizer proportions, water‐to‐soil ratios, and inclusion of fine aggregates. Compressive strength tests were conducted for each mix. Results showed that increased cement content enhanced ICEB compressive strength by promoting the formation of calcium silicate hydrate gel. Water content increments from 12% to 21% improved strength up to 18% but declined thereafter. Higher sand percentages initially reduced compressive strength but improved it with higher cement proportions. The optimal mix ratio was selected for ICEB production, followed by tests including flexural strength assessment, forensic investigations, curing regimes impact, and comprehensive durability and structural performance evaluation. Findings highlight ICEBs’ potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional brick masonry.

Field experiments of watt-level piezoelectric energy harvester for different embedded depths

Road piezoelectric energy-harvesting technology uses the positive piezoelectric effect to convert vibrational energy produced by vehicular load to electrical energy. Road piezoelectric energy harvesters (RPEHs) are the core elements behind this technology. A new disc-type metal–piezoelectric ceramic transducer structure was developed to promote road piezoelectric energy collection and increase power generation from RPEHs. Finite element analyses and field tests were then conducted. The experimental results show that the disc transducers have excellent road compatibility. The greater the embedded depth of the transducer, the smaller is the output power of the RPEH; hence, an embedded depth of 2 cm was selected as the optimal value for comprehensive durability and electrical performance. When a small car travelling at a speed of 60 km/h passed over the RPEH embedded at a depth of 2 cm, a maximum voltage of 62 V, maximum current of 62 mA, and maximum utput power of 3844 mW (power density: 43 W/m2) were observed. The influence of the vehicle weight on the RPEH output power decreased with increase in speed. Therefore, this study confirms that the new disc-type RPEH is less costly, has excellent power generation, and requires less piezoelectric transducer material.

Using rice husk ash to imitate the properties of silica fume in high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete (HPFRC): A comprehensive durability and life-cycle evaluation

High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HPFRCs) are recognized by a special combination of cementitious composites with high durability, high strength, and deformability. However, due to the high initial price and constrained availability of materials like Silica Fume, its implementation is challenging, particularly in developing countries. In this study, cement was initially replaced by 10%, 20%, and 30% fly ash (FA), respectively. Furthermore, the mix providing maximum compressive strength was then taken to replace the silica fume content at 10, 20, 30 and 40% by RHA, and then steel fiber was also added to optimize the compressive and flexural ductility performance of the specimens. An extensive evaluation of the durability, mechanical, and microstructural characteristics of produced HPFRCs was carried out. In addition, to evaluate the sustainability of produced mixes, a lifecycle evaluation was carried out utilizing the recipe midpoint and endpoint techniques. Test results show that the uniaxial compressive strength was significantly enhanced at RHA concentrations up to 20%. Moreover, the gradual increment of RHA concentration enhanced the durability performance of HPFRCs, as evidenced by a reduction in the sorptivity coefficient of up to 30%. In addition, the Life-cycle analysis (LCA) assessment revealed a significant reduction of crucial environmental factors, such as CO2 emissions, fine particle discharge, ozone depletion, and land use with the gradual integration of RHA and FA.

Development of Lightweight Geopolymer Composites by Combining Various CDW Streams

This study regards the development of lightweight geopolymer composites through the valorization of various construction and demolition wastes. Brick waste was utilized as the sole aluminosilicate precursor for the geopolymerization reactions, expanded polystyrene and polyurethane wastes were used as artificial lightweight aggregates, and short polyethylene fibers developed from CDWs reinforced the geopolymer matrix. The curing conditions of the geopolymer synthesis were optimized to deliver a robust geopolymer matrix (T = 25–80 °C, t = 24–72 h). Both raw materials and products were appropriately characterized with XRD and SEM, while the mechanical performance was tested through compressive strength, flexural strength, Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus measurements. Then, a comprehensive durability investigation was performed (sorptivity, wet/dry cycles, freeze/thaw cycles, and exposure to real weather conditions). In contrast to polyurethane waste, the introduction of expanded polystyrene (0.5–3.0% wt.) effectively reduced the final density of the products (from 2.1 to 1.0 g/cm3) by keeping sufficient compressive strength (6.5–22.8 MPa). The PE fibers could enhance the bending behavior of lightweight geopolymers by 24%; however, a geopolymer matrix–fiber debonding was clearly visible through SEM analysis. Finally, the durability performance of CDW-based geopolymers was significantly improved after the incorporation of expanded polystyrene aggregates and polyethylene fibers mainly concerning freeze/thaw testing. The composite containing 1.5% wt. expanded polystyrene and 2.0% v/v PE fibers held the best combination of properties: Compr. Str. 13.1 MPa, Flex. Str. 3.2 MPa, density 1.4 g/cm3, Young’s modulus 1.3 GPa, and sorptivity 0.179 mm/min0.5.

Improving the Efficiency of Metalworking by the Cutting Tool Rake Surface Texturing and Using the Wear Predictive Evaluation Method on the Case of Turning an Iron–Nickel Alloy

The article proposes and substantiates the function of predictive evaluation using the criterion of the relative efficiency of using a cutting tool with a microtextured rake surface based on tangential force and cutting temperature. Comprehensive durability tests carried out under various processing modes with the measurement of heat power parameters made it possible to create an experimental base for mathematical modeling. An empirical model of cutting parameters based on modified multiplicative functions with non-constant indicators in the form of linear dependencies on processing factors was used based on planning an experiment for processing a heat-resistant alloy for predictive wear assessment in order to determine rational cutting modes. Predicting the rational use of a cutting tool with a microtextured work surface made it possible to obtain a 1.3-fold increase in durability.

Investigation on the comprehensive durability and interface properties of coloured ultra-thin pavement overlay

Coloured pavement provides benefits for improving functionality and safety in pavement infrastructure. In this investigation, a coloured ultra-thin pavement overlay was prepared with a resin-based binder and artificial coloured ceramic aggregates. The overlays were prepared in various binder thicknesses (0.8 mm, 1.2 mm, and 1.6 mm) and aggregate spreading ratios (50 %, 75 %, and 100 %). The specimens were experimentally tested with a wheel abrasion tester followed by the analysis of apparent colour loss, rutting depth, mass loss, and skid resistance in accordance with a proposed comprehensive durability evaluation method. The colour-cooling performance was evaluated with the sunlight simulation test. In addition, the interface properties were tested based on the flexural toughness test, pull-off test, and shear test. The comprehensive durability evaluation results indicated that coloured overlay with 1.2 mm binder depth and 75 % aggregate spreading ratio had the highest durability score among all samples. The sunlight simulation test results verified the positive cooling effect of the coloured overlay on the pavement structure. The bottom-up cracking resistance based on the flexural toughness test was also improved with overlays by comparing that with specimens without covering. The pull-off test and shear test results illustrated that the interface adhesion was correlated to environmental temperature and binder thickness. This study provided a comprehensive durability scoring method for coloured ultra-thin functional overlays, and the optimized material compositions enhanced the durability and interface adhesion, which could be utilized for future field applications of coloured ultra-thin functional overlays and contribute to infrastructure sustainability.

One-step dipping method to prepare inorganic-organic composite superhydrophobic coating for durable protection of magnesium alloys

BackgroundIt is a great challenge to fabricate the superhydrophobic coating with durable protection ability in one-step facile way. MethodsHere we develop a simple and scalable one-step dipping method to prepare the superhydrophobic coating of aluminum phosphate (AP) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) for durable protection of magnesium alloys. The coating was characterized by using contact angle meter, high-speed camera, field emission scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The anti-corrosion performance and comprehensive durability of the coating were evaluated by the electrochemical methods and various mechanical/physical and chemical durability tests, respectively. FindingsThe as-prepared AP-PTFE inorganic-organic composite coating is composed of compactly arranged ellipsoidal nanospheres. The coating is superhydrophobic with a water contact angle of 155.7°, which demonstrates high resistance to corrosive medium and extraordinary durability to resist various mechanical/physical and chemical damage. The enhanced interaction force between the coating and the substrate that was derived from the reaction between the inorganic binder AP and the active Mg alloy, the corrosion inhibition of polymerized AP, and the high corrosion resistance of PTFE are responsible for the coating extraordinary durability. This study provides a promising strategy for large-scale production of durable superhydrophobic coatings.

Durability evaluation and life prediction of fiber concrete with fly ash based on entropy weight method and grey theory

High amounts of sulfates are found in the soil of Nazixia area in Qinghai Province, China. As such, the sulfate attack must be considered for the construction of dams. In this paper, fiber concrete specimens with fly ash content of 0, 10%, 20%, and 30% are designed and manufactured (All the fiber contents of specimen is 0.9%), and two groups of sulfate dry–wet cycle tests were carried out (Group 1: 0 fly ash content in 2%, 5%, and 10% sodium sulfate solution dry–wet cycle; Group 2: 0, 10%, 20%, and 30% fly ash content in 5% sodium sulfate solution dry–wet cycle). We analyzed the mass, compressive strength, and split strength of specimens. Based on entropy weight method, we determined the weight of mass, compressive strength, and split strength and proposed a new comprehensive durability evaluation method that took durability value as an evaluation object. Based on the above method, GM(1,1) model was used to simulate the change rule of durability value and predict the change rule of concrete durability under different conditions.

DURABILITY PROPERTIES OF RECYCLED CONCRETE WITH LITHIUM SLAG UNDER FREEZE-THAW CYCLES

A water freeze-thaw cycle and sulfate freeze-thaw coupling cycle were explored experimentally to evaluate the durability of recycled concrete with lithium slag (LS). The damage-deterioration law was studied from the aspects of mass-change rate, relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, and cube’s compressive strength. Based on the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, the damage-degree equation of the concrete was fitted, and a mechanical-attenuation model related to this parameter and the cube’s compressive strength was established and verified. The damage mechanism under the action of the sulfate freeze-thaw cycle was revealed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The combination of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) and LS was beneficial to the anti-deterioration ability of the concrete. During the cycle experiments, the mass and relative dynamic modulus of elasticity increased initially and then decreased, while the cube’s compressive strength declined continually. The concrete with a 30 % RCA substitution rate and 20 % LS exhibited the optimal comprehensive durability, and specimens with excessive LS showed more susceptibility to sulfate erosion. The residual compressive strength of concrete structures can be evaluated by measuring the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity as the two parameters are ideally correlated.

Durability evaluation of road cooling coating

A comprehensive durability evaluation system for road cooling coating had not yet been constructed. Aimed at this objective, different new road cooling coatings were prepared based on a variety of selected raw materials, and the cooling effects of different road cooling coatings were determined by means of a field test. The complex coupling environment of temperature, vehicle load, and pollution in the practical application of road cooling coating was simulated. Durability evaluation indexes of road cooling coatings under different composite operating conditions were presented, following which the comprehensive durability of different road cooling coatings was evaluated using a multi-objective grey target decision-making method. Road cooling coatings with superior comprehensive durability were selected. The results demonstrate that various road cooling coatings can reduce the asphalt pavement temperature under the impact of the outside environment. The comprehensive durability of road coatings is obviously improved with the addition of cooling function materials.

Comprehensively durable superhydrophobic metallic hierarchical surfaces via tunable micro-cone design to protect functional nanostructures.

Superhydrophobic surfaces have been intensively investigated in recent years. However, their durability remains a major challenge before superhydrophobic surfaces can be employed in practice. Although various works have focused on overcoming this bottleneck, no single surface has ever been able to achieve the comprehensive durability (including tangential abrasion durability, dynamic impact durability and adhesive durability) required by stringent industrial requirements. Within the hierarchical structures developed for superhydrophobicity in typical plants or animals by natural evolution, microstructures usually provide mechanical stability, strength and flexibility to protect functional nanostructures to enable high durability. However, this mechanism for achieving high durability is rarely studied or reported. We employed an ultrafast laser to fabricate micro/nanohierarchical structures on metal surfaces with tunable micro-cones and produced abundant nanostructures. We then systematically investigated their comprehensive mechanical durability by fully utilizing the protective effect of the microstructures on the functional nanostructures via the tunable design of micro-cones. We confirm that the height and spatial period of the microstructures were crucial for the tangential abrasion durability and dynamic impact durability, respectively. We finally fabricated optimized superhydrophobic tungsten hierarchical surfaces, which could withstand 70 abrasion cycles, 28 min of solid particle impact or 500 tape peeling cycles to retain contact angles of greater than 150° and sliding angles of less than 20°, which demonstrated exceptional comprehensive durability. The comprehensive durability, in particular the dynamic impact durability and adhesive durability, are among the best published results. This research clarifies the mechanism whereby the microstructures effectively protected the functional nanostructures to achieve high durability of the superhydrophobic surfaces and is promising for improving the durability of superhydrophobic surfaces and thus for practical applications.

Studies on the material resistance and moisture dynamics of Common juniper, English yew, Black cherry, and Rowan

ABSTRACTThe overall aim of this study was to provide comprehensive durability characteristics of wood species underutilized but frequently occurring in Central and Northern Europe: Common juniper (Juniperus communis L.), Black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.), English yew (Taxus baccata L.), and Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.). Decay resistance was tested against white and brown rot causing basidiomycetes and soft rot causing micro-fungi in terrestrial microcosms. Their wetting ability was determined in terms of capillary water uptake at the end-grain, the liquid water uptake during submersion, the water vapor uptake at high humidity, and the water release during drying. All tests were performed with unleached and leached specimens. Durability classes were assigned based on results from the different tests. Juniper and Yew were classified very durable (Durability class DC 1); Black cherry and Rowan were found to be less durable (DC 3–5). Leaching did not affect the durability classification significantly. Durability characteristics were completed with different indicators for the wetting ability of the four wood species. The combined effect of wetting ability and inherent decay resistance was considered for service life modeling based on a resistance model using dose–response relationships between material climate (dose) and fungal decay above ground (response).