Compounds Of Ginseng Research Articles

Weighted gene co-expression network analysis and identification of ginsenoside biosynthesis candidate genes for ginseng adventitious roots under MeJA treatment.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herb with a long history and a wide range of applications. Ginsenoside is one of the most representative and active ginseng compounds, with various pharmacological effects. Therefore, the development of bioreactors using methyl jasmonate (MeJA) as an inducer for targeted ginsenoside production is of great commercial value. Combined with transcriptomic research tools, screenings to obtain candidate genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis are crucial for future discoveries about the molecular mechanism of MeJA-regulated ginsenoside biosynthesis. In our study, the ginsenoside content of ginseng adventitious roots treated with MeJA at different times was analyzed. Transcriptome analysis was performed to investigate the effects of MeJA on changes in ginsenoside content in ginseng adventitious roots. The MeJA could significantly increase changes in the content of pro-ginsenodiol ginsenosides as well as pro-triol ginsenosides Rg3, Re, and Rf in ginseng adventitious roots. Differential gene expression analysis showed that a total of 14,009 differentially expressed genes were obtained from the screening of the present study. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis showed that differentially expressed genes were mainly enriched under GO terms in response to stimuli, metabolic processes, and the regulation of biological processes, with significant annotation to the metabolic terms of terpenoids and polyketides. Two expression modules of genes highly related to ginsenoside biosynthesis were obtained via WGCNA. Our study provides a reference system for the targeted ginsenoside production using MeJA as an inducer, and also provides genetic and gene resources for subsequently validating genes related to the regulation of ginsenoside biosynthesis using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA).

Nanoemulsions of red quinoa and ginseng extracts with chitosan wall: Investigating the antioxidant properties and its effect on the shelf life of dairy cream.

The study aimed to investigate the antioxidant properties of ginseng and red quinoa extract nanoemulsion and its effect on the shelf life of dairy cream. Nanoemulsion includes dairy cream, Tween 80, chitosan, whey protein powder, chitosan/whey protein powder, red quinoa extract, ginseng extract, and a mixture of extracts (1:1). The highest total phenol content and total flavonoid content were related to ginseng extract (24,009.55 mg of gallic acid equivalent/kg, 883.16 mg quercetin/kg) with ethanol-water solvent (80:20). Most of the phenolic and flavonoid compounds of ginseng and red quinoa extracts were related to p-coumaric acid (211.3 μg/g), catechin (29.6 μg/g), ellagic acid (73.88 μg/g), and rutin (34.12 μg/g), respectively. Considerable antioxidant power in the concentration of 800 ppm of red quinoa and ginseng extracts (ethanol-water solvent (50:50), (80:20)) in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging (80%, 82%, 80%, and 78%), bleaching β-carotene: linoleic acid (81%, 73%, 77%, and 86%), and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays (70%, 73%, 72%, and 76%) was observed. Nanoemulsions of red quinoa extract with chitosan wall had the smallest particle size (250.67 nm), the highest encapsulation efficiency (72.79%), and the polydispersity index (0.34). Nanoemulsions containing ginseng + quinoa (1:1) with chitosan/whey protein powder wall showed the highest viscosity (5.30 mPa/s) and the mostzeta potential (-32.6 mv). Also, nanoemulsions of red quinoa extract showed the lowest amount of peroxide value and the thiobarbituric acid value (12 milliequivalent O2/kg-0.48 μg/mL) in dairy cream oil. In general, the red quinoa extract with chitosan wall was superior to other samples due to the delay in oxidation and positive effect on the shelf life of dairy cream.

Investigating the effects of rare ginsenosides on hyperuricemia and associated sperm damage via nontargeted metabolomics and gut microbiota

Ethnopharmacological relevanceIn ancient times, ginseng was used for hyperuricemia treatment as described in the classic traditional Chinese medical text Shang Han Lun. Recent studies have shown that common ginsenosides and rare ginsenosides (RGS) are the main active compounds in ginseng. RGS have higher activity and are less studied in the treatment of hyperuricemia. Aim of the studyTo determine whether RGS prevents and ameliorates potassium oxonate(PO)-induced hyperuricemia and concomitant spermatozoa damage in mice and the possible underlying mechanisms. Materials and methodsPotassium oxonate (PO, 300 mg/kg) induced hyperuricemia in mice via the oral administration of RGS (50, 100, or 200 mg/kg) or allopurinol (ALL, 5 mg/kg) for 35 days. Uric acid (UA) and xanthine oxidase (XO) levels were measured to assess the degree of histopathological damage in the liver, kidney, and testis, and renal creatinine (CRE), urea nitrogen (BUN), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), and inflammatory factor (IL-1β) levels were measured to calculate the sperm density. Mechanisms were also explored based on blood and urine metabolomics and the gut microbiota. ResultsIn this study, we demonstrated that RGS containing Rg3, Rk1, Rg6, and Rg5 could reduce serum UA levels, inhibit serum and hepatic XO activity, reduce renal CRE and BUN levels, further restore renal SOD and GSH activities, reduce the accumulation of MDA in the kidneys, and attenuate the production of renal IL-1β. RGS was able to restore sperm density. Metabolomic analysis revealed that RGS improved sphingolipid metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism, and other metabolic pathways. 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that RGS could increase gut microbial diversity, restore the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B) ratio, and adjust the intestinal microbial balance. Spearman's correlation analysis revealed a correlation between differentially metabolites and the gut microbiota. Lactobacillus and Akkermansia are the core genera. ConclusionRGS can be a candidate for the prevention and amelioration of hyperuricemia and concomitant sperm damage. Its mechanism of action is closely related to sphingolipid metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism, and the modulation of gut microbiota, such as Lactobacillus and Akkermansia.

Aqueous preparation of arginyl-fructosyl-glucose (a maltose-arginine AC) and determination of Amadori compounds (ACs) in red ginseng by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS)

Amadori compounds (ACs) are key Maillard intermediates in various foods after thermal processing, and are also important non-saponin components in red ginseng. Currently, due to the difficulty in obtaining AC standards, the determination of multiple ACs is limited and far from optimal. In this study, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated. A green synthetic method was developed for arginyl-fructosyl-glucose (AFG), the major AC in red ginseng with potential health benefits. The UPLC-MS/MS method was then applied in identification and quantification of ACs in red ginseng samples, which showed for the first time that 12 other ACs also exist in red ginseng in addition to AFG and arginyl-fructose (total 98.88 % of all ACs). Contents of AFG and arginyl-fructose in whole red ginseng were 36.23 and 10.80 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Raw ginseng can be steamed and then dried whole to obtain whole red ginseng, or sliced before drying to obtain sliced red ginseng. Slicing before drying was found to reduce ACs content. Results of the present study will help to reveal the biological functions of red ginseng and related products associated with ACs and promote the standardization of red ginseng manufacture.

Triterpenoid saponin from Panax ginseng increases the sensitivity of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to β-lactam and aminoglycoside antibiotics.

The triterpenoid saponins, ginsenosides, are the major bioactive compound of red ginseng and can exert various physiological activities. In the present study, we examined whether red ginseng extract (RGE) exerts antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). RGE had no bactericidal activity, at least in the range of dissolvable concentration. However, RGE reduced 0.03-0.25-fold the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of β-lactam antibiotics (oxacillin, ampicillin, carbenicillin, and cefazolin) and aminoglycoside antibiotics (kanamycin and gentamicin) against the two laboratory strains of MRSA. Moreover, the fractional inhibitory concentration index indicated the synergistic activity of RGE with each of the antibiotics. RGE also increased the kanamycin sensitivity of 15 MRSA strains isolated from human volunteers and increased the ampicillin sensitivity of five MRSA strains isolated from dairy cows diagnosed with bovine mastitis. In contrast, RGE did not alter the MIC values of fosfomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin, suggesting that RGE acts selectively. In contrast, Triton X-100, which was reported to reduce the MIC value of β-lactam antibiotics to MRSA by increasing membrane permeability, reduced the MIC values of fosfomycin and tetracycline. These results indicate that RGE increases the bactericidal effect of antibiotics via a mechanism different from that used by Triton X-100. We found that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), a component of RGE, was an essential compound that exhibits synergy activity with antibiotics. Furthermore, the non-natural compound K, which contains a common protopanaxadiol aglycon moiety with Rg3, also showed synergistic activity with antibiotics. Thus, Rg3 and compound K are potentially new antibiotic adjuvants against MRSA.IMPORTANCEMethicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a multidrug-resistant organism that is prevalent worldwide. Therefore, the research and development of new agents against MRSA are required. We first found that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) in red ginseng, made from the roots of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, increased the sensitivity of β-lactam antibiotics and aminoglycoside antibiotics to MRSA. Furthermore, we identified that compound K, an unnatural ginsenoside analog, also increased the sensitivity of antibiotics to MRSA, similar to Rg3. By contrast, neither Rg3 nor compound K increased the sensitivity of fosfomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin to MRSA, suggesting that these act selectively. In the present study, the natural compound Rg3 and its structural isomer, compound K, are potentially new antibiotic adjuvants against MRSA. Currently, multiple antibiotics are used to treat MRSA, but the use of these adjuvants is expected to enable the treatment of MRSA with a single antibiotic and low concentrations of antibiotics.

A Gellan Gum, Polyethylene Glycol, Hydroxyapatite Composite Scaffold with the Addition of Ginseng Derived Compound K with Possible Applications in Bone Regeneration.

Engineered bone scaffolds should mimic the natural material to promote cell adhesion and regeneration. For this reason, natural biopolymers are becoming a gold standard in scaffold production. In this study, we proposed a hybrid scaffold produced using gellan gum, hydroxyapatite, and Poly (ethylene glycol) within the addition of the ginseng compound K (CK) as a candidate for bone regeneration. The fabricated scaffold was physiochemically characterized. The morphology studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and image analysis revealed a pore distribution suitable for cells growth. The addition of CK further improved the biological activity of the hybrid scaffold as demonstrated by the MTT assay. The addition of CK influenced the scaffold morphology, decreasing the mean pore diameter. These findings can potentially help the development of a new generation of hybrid scaffolds to best mimic the natural tissue.

Isolation and Identification of Bitter Compounds in Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.) Based on Preparative High Performance Liquid Chromatography, UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and Electronic Tongue

As a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.) is commonly used to treat common diseases, for example, esophageal cancer and myasthenia gravis. Furthermore, ginseng is also processed into a functional food additive that is utilized to improve the freshness of chicken soup and make health wine. Unfortunately, ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.) has already shown a noticeable bitterness during its application process. In this research, the bitter substances in ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey.) after two common preparation processes (water extraction and ethanol extraction) were separated, purified and identified by preparative high performance liquid chromatography (prep-HPLC), high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) and an electronic tongue. The results indicated that compared with the other four bitter compounds, the ginsenoside Rb1 had the highest bitterness value, followed by 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg2, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rf and ginsenoside Rb3. Upon the evaluation of results to reduce the bitterness of ginseng extract, we found that the composite embedding system of chitosan adsorption in the ginseng carrageenan gel microsphere (K/MC/MCG) could effectively reduce the bitterness.

Active Compounds of Panax ginseng in the Improvement of Alzheimer's Disease and Application of Spatial Metabolomics.

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (P. ginseng) is one of the more common traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). It contains numerous chemical components and exhibits a range of pharmacological effects. An enormous burden is placed on people's health and life by Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative condition. Recent research has shown that P. ginseng's chemical constituents, particularly ginsenosides, have a significant beneficial impact on the prevention and management of neurological disorders. To understand the current status of research on P. ginseng to improve AD, this paper discusses the composition of P. ginseng, its mechanism of action, and its clinical application. The pathogenesis of AD includes amyloid beta protein (Aβ) generation and aggregation, tau protein hyperphosphorylation, oxidant stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial damage, and neurotransmitter and gut microbiota disorders. This review presents the key molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of the active ingredients in P. ginseng involved in improving AD from the perspective of AD pathogenesis. A P. ginseng-related signaling pathway network was constructed to provide effective targets for the treatment of AD. In addition, the application of spatial metabolomics techniques in studying P. ginseng and AD is discussed. In summary, this paper discusses research perspectives for the study of P. ginseng in the treatment of AD, including a systematic and in-depth review of the mechanisms of action of the active substances in P. ginseng, and evaluates the feasibility of applying spatial metabolomics in the study of AD pathogenesis and pharmacological treatment.

Therapeutic Applications of Ginseng Natural Compounds for Health Management.

Ginseng is usually consumed as a daily food supplement to improve health and has been shown to benefit skeletal muscle, improve glucose metabolism, and ameliorate muscle-wasting conditions, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and the effects of aging and cancers. Ginseng has also been reported to help maintain bone strength and liver (digestion, metabolism, detoxification, and protein synthesis) and kidney functions. In addition, ginseng is often used to treat age-associated neurodegenerative disorders, and ginseng and ginseng-derived natural products are popular natural remedies for diseases such as diabetes, obesity, oxidative stress, and inflammation, as well as fungal, bacterial, and viral infections. Ginseng is a well-known herbal medication, known to alleviate the actions of several cytokines. The article concludes with future directions and significant application of ginseng compounds for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in the treatment of several diseases. Overall, this study was undertaken to highlight the broad-spectrum therapeutic applications of ginseng compounds for health management.

20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits angiotensin-2 mediated cardiac remodeling and inflammation associated with suppression of the JNK/AP-1 pathway

BackgroundEnhanced levels of angiotensin-2 (Ang-II) causes hypertensive heart failure (HHF) through non-hemodynamical and hemodynamical alterations. 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 (20(S)-Rh2) is a natural ginseng compound with numerous cardiovascular benefits. This investigation elucidates the influence of 20(S)-Rh2 on Ang-II-induced heart failure and cardiac alterations. MethodsAng-II was administered in C57BL/6 mice for 4 weeks to induce HHF. In the last 2 weeks of treatment, 20(S)-Rh2 was orally administered in mice to assess the potential 20(S)-Rh2 mechanism. Subsequently, RNA sequencing was carried out. ResultsIt was indicated that 20(S)-Rh2 suppresses myocardial fibrosis, hypertrophy, and inflammation, thereby inhibiting cardiac disruption in Ang-II-challenged mice without affecting blood pressure. According to the RNA sequencing data, this cardio-protective effect was linked with the (JNK)/AP 1 pathway. 20(S)-Rh2 alleviated heart tissue and cardiomyocytes inflammation by inhibiting the Ang-II-mediated JNK/AP-1 pathway. Within cardiomyocytes, JNK or AP-1 absence abolished the anti-inflammatory effects of 20(S)-Rh2. ConclusionThis study investigation indicated that 20(S)-Rh2 prevents cardiovascular dysfunction induced by Ang-II induced by decreasing JNK-regulated inflammatory responses, providing evidence for its use as an efficient regimen for HHF.

Gintonin-Induced Wound-Healing-Related Responses Involve Epidermal-Growth-Factor-like Effects in Keratinocytes.

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor activation and related downstream signaling pathways are known to be one of the major mechanisms of the proliferation and migration of keratinocytes. The heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HB-EGF) binds to EGF receptors and stimulates keratinocyte proliferation and migration. Gintonin, a novel ginseng compound, is a lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor ligand. Gintonin has skin-wound-healing effects. However, the underlying mechanisms for these gintonin actions remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the involvement of EGFRs in gintonin-induced wound repair in HaCaT keratinocytes. In this study, a water-soluble tetrazolium salt-based assay, a modified Boyden chamber migration assay, and immunoblotting were performed. Gintonin increased EGF receptor activation in HaCaT cells. However, the gintonin-induced phosphorylation of the EGF receptor was markedly reduced via treatment with the LPA inhibitor Ki16425 or the EGF receptor inhibitor erlotinib. Gintonin-enhanced proliferation and migration were blocked by the EGF receptor inhibitors (erlotinib and AG1478). Additionally, gintonin stimulated the expression and release of HB-EGF in HaCaT cells. EGF receptor inhibitors blocked gintonin-enhanced HB-EGF expression. These results indicate that the wound-healing effects of gintonin are closely related to the collaboration between EGF receptor activation and HB-EGF release-mediated downstream signaling pathways.

전자혀를 이용한 인삼의 쓴맛 성분 특성화

Ginseng root is a medicinal plant widely used in Korea for its immunity enhancing and anti-fatigue properties. However, its bitter taste has a negative impact on the expansion of the ginseng market. In this study, we determined the bitter tasting compounds of ginseng using an electronic tongue. The results of measuring bitterness showed that phenolic compounds and polyacetylenes of ginseng had low bitterness. On the other hand, the bitterness was strong in ginsenosides and alkaloids of ginseng. Among them, the bitterness of ginseng was higher in ginsenosides than in alkaloids. Theses results suggest that ginsenosides have a significant affect on the bitter taste of ginseng.

Characterization of Ginsenosides from the Root of Panax ginseng by Integrating Untargeted Metabolites Using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS

To compare the chemical distinctions of Panax ginseng Meyer in different growth environments and explore the effects of growth-environment factors on P. ginseng growth, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS/MS) was used to characterize the ginsenosides obtained by ultrasonic extraction from P. ginseng grown in different growing environments. Sixty-three ginsenosides were used as reference standards for accurate qualitative analysis. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the differences in main components and clarified the influence of growth environment factors on P. ginseng compounds. A total of 312 ginsenosides were identified in four types of P. ginseng, among which 75 were potential new ginsenosides. The number of ginsenosides in L15 was the highest, and the number of ginsenosides in the other three groups was similar, but it was a great difference in specie of ginsenosides. The study confirmed that different growing environments had a great influence on the constituents of P. ginseng, and provided a new breakthrough for the further study of the potential compounds in P. ginseng.

Ginsenoside Rg1 ameliorates Alzheimer's disease pathology via restoring mitophagy

BackgroundAlzheimer's disease (AD) is a common form of dementia, and impaired mitophagy is a hallmark of AD. Mitophagy is mitochondrial-specific autophagy. Ginsenosides from Ginseng involve in autophagy in cancer. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1 hereafter), a single compound of Ginseng, has neuroprotective effects on AD. However, few studies have reported whether Rg1 can ameliorate AD pathology by regulating mitophagy. MethodsHuman SH-SY5Y cell and a 5XFAD mouse model were used to investigate the effects of Rg1. Rg1 (1μM) was added to β-amyloid oligomer (AβO)-induced or APPswe-overexpressed cell models for 24 hours. 5XFAD mouse models were intraperitoneally injected with Rg1 (10 mg/kg/d) for 30 days. Expression levels of mitophagy-related markers were analyzed by western blot and immunofluorescent staining. Cognitive function was assessed by Morris water maze. Mitophagic events were observed using transmission electron microscopy, western blot, and immunofluorescent staining from mouse hippocampus. The activation of the PINK1/Parkin pathway was examined using an immunoprecipitation assay. ResultsRg1 could restore mitophagy and ameliorate memory deficits in the AD cellular and/or mouse model through the PINK1-Parkin pathway. Moreover, Rg1 might induce microglial phagocytosis to reduce β-amyloid (Aβ) deposits in the hippocampus of AD mice. ConclusionOur studies demonstrate the neuroprotective mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 in AD models. Rg1 induces PINK-Parkin mediated mitophagy and ameliorates memory deficits in 5XFAD mouse models.

Functional compounds of ginseng and ginseng-containing medicine for treating cardiovascular diseases.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.) is the dry root and rhizome of the Araliaceae ginseng plant. It has always been used as a tonic in China for strengthening the body. Cardiovascular disease is still the main cause of death in the world. Some studies have shown that the functional components of ginseng can regulate the pathological process of various cardiovascular diseases through different mechanisms, and its formulation also plays an irreplaceable role in the clinical treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, this paper elaborates the current pharmacological effects of ginseng functional components in treating cardiovascular diseases, summarizes the adverse reactions of ginseng, and sorts out the Chinese patent medicines containing ginseng formula which can treat cardiovascular diseases.

The antifatigue effects of Ginseng compound on mice in acute hypoxic environment

目的: 在模拟海拔6 000 m高原低氧环境中观察人参复方对急性低氧小鼠抗疲劳的作用。方法: 将SPF级昆明小鼠分为正常组、缺氧模型组、阳性对照组(红景天)、人参复方低剂量组(1.0 g/kg)、中剂量组(2.0 g/kg)、高剂量组(3.0 g/kg),正常组和缺氧模型组灌等量生理盐水,按10 ml/kg体质量每天灌胃一次,连续灌胃给药14 d,利用特殊环境人工低压氧舱模拟海拔6 000 m建立小鼠急性低氧模型,除正常组外,其余组小鼠均置于人工低压氧舱中,历时24 h,然后进行负重游泳,记录小鼠负重游泳力竭时间,检测超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、丙二醛(MDA)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、三磷酸腺苷(ATP)、尿素氮(BUN)、肌糖原(MG)、肝糖原(Gly)、乳酸(LA)、乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)含量。结果: 与缺氧模型组相比,人参复方对小鼠负重游泳力竭时间显著延长(P＜0.05);与正常组相比,人参复方低、中、高剂量组血清中LA、Gly含量均显著升高(P＜0.05);与阳性对照组相比,人参复方高剂量组血清中LA含量显著升高(P＜0.05);与缺氧模型组相比,人参复方低、中、高剂量组血清中BUN、LA含量显著降低(P＜ 0.05),肝糖原中Gly含量显著升高(P＜0.05),人参复方中、高剂量组血清中ATP、LDH含量、肌糖原中MG含量显著升高(P＜ 0.05),MDA含量显著降低(P＜0.05),人参复方高剂量组SOD含量显著升高(P＜0.05)。结论: 人参复方可显著提高急性低氧环境中小鼠抗疲劳作用。.

Preparation and pharmacological effects of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles: a review.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to Panax genus of Araliaceae. Ginsenosides are a kind of important compounds in ginseng and minor ginsenosides are secondary metabolic derivatives of ginsenosides. Studies have shown that minor ginsenosides have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-platelet aggregation, and neuroprotective effects. However, the therapeutic effects of minor ginsenosides are limited due to poor solubility in water, short half-life, and poor targeting accuracy. In recent years, to improve the application efficiency, the research on the nanocrystallization of minor ginsenosides have attracted extensive attention from researchers. This review focuses on the classification, preparation methods, pharmacological effects, and action mechanisms of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles, as well as existing problems and future direction of relevant research, which provides a reference for the in-depth research of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles.

Thermal Control Using Far-Infrared Irradiation for Producing Deglycosylated Bioactive Compounds from Korean Ginseng Leaves.

Although ginseng leaf is a good source of health-beneficial phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and ginsenosides, few studies have focused on the variation in compounds and bioactivities during leaf thermal processing. The efficiency of far-infrared irradiation (FIR) between 160 °C and 200 °C on the deglycosylation of bioactive compounds in ginseng leaves was analyzed. FIR treatment significantly increased the total polyphenol content (TPC) and kaempferol production from panasenoside conversion. The highest content or conversion ratio was observed at 180 °C (FIR-180). Major ginsenoside contents gradually decreased as the FIR temperature increased, while minor ginsenoside contents significantly increased. FIR exhibited high efficiency to produce dehydrated minor ginsenosides, of which F4, Rg6, Rh4, Rk3, Rk1, and Rg5 increased to their highest levels at FIR-190, by 278-, 149-, 176-, 275-, 64-, and 81-fold, respectively. Moreover, significantly increased antioxidant activities were also observed in FIR-treated leaves, particularly FIR-180, mainly due to the breakage of phenolic polymers to release antioxidants. These results suggest that FIR treatment is a rapid and efficient processing method for producing various health-beneficial bioactive compounds from ginseng leaves. After 30 min of treatment without leaf burning, FIR-190 was the optimum temperature for producing minor ginsenosides, whereas FIR-180 was the optimum temperature for producing polyphenols and kaempferol. In addition, the results suggested that the antioxidant benefits of ginseng leaves are mainly due to polyphenols rather than ginsenosides.

Ginsenoside Rb1 from Panax ginseng attenuates monoiodoacetate-induced osteoarthritis by inhibiting miR-21-5p/FGF18-mediated inflammation.

Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is a major active compound in Panax ginseng and has shown considerable anti-inflammation effects. Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the major degenerative disorders affecting the knee. MiR-21-5p is a potential therapeutic target for OA treatment. This study explored the anti-OA effects of Rb1 by focusing on its interaction with the miR-21-5p/FGF18 axis. OA was induced in rats using monoiodoacetate (MIA) and managed with Rb1. Then, changes in the histological structure and miR-21-5p-mediated signaling pathway were measured in joint tissues. The role of miR-21-5p/FGF18 in the anti-OA effects of Rb1 was confirmed by inducing its levels in rats and chondrocytes. Rb1 improved the histological structure and suppressed the production of cytokines in joint tissues. At the molecular level, Rb1 down-regulated miR-12-5p levels and up-regulated FGF18 levels. In chondrocytes, Rb1 increased cell viability, suppressed inflammation, down-regulated miR-21-5p levels, and up-regulated FGF18 levels. The restored level of miR-21-5p compromised the anti-OA effects of Rb1. In a nutshell, our study reported that the anti-OA effects of Rb1 relied on the inhibited expression of miR-21-5p. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is a major active compound in Panax ginseng and has shown considerable anti-osteoarthritis (OA) effects. The current study not only relates the anti-OA function of ginsenoside Rb1 with microRNA but also provides valuable information for exploring novel targets for the development the anti-OA strategies.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking-Based Prediction of the Molecular Targets and Signaling Pathways of Ginseng in the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Objective: The present study was aimed at exploring the molecular mechanism underlying the action of ginseng in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) using network pharmacology. Methods: The main effective ginseng ingredients were obtained from the traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database and analysis platform (TCMSP) database and screened for oral bioavailability (OB), as well as drug-like properties (DL). A platform of PD targets was established using GeneCards and Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) databases, and then an “effective ingredient-target-disease” interaction network was constructed using Cytoscape 3.7.1 software. A STRING database was used to construct a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, and the related protein interactions were analyzed. Finally, we performed functional analyses of core targets using the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Gene and Gene Encyclopedia (KEGG) pathway enrichment, and then conducted molecular docking of the effective ingredients with disease targets. Results: Ninety-seven effective ginseng ingredients and 168 potential targets of PD were identified in the present study. Network analysis showed that the targets were mainly involved in regulating cell metabolism, apoptosis, and other biological processes (BPs). Further, it was noted that the effects of the targets on treatment of PD involved regulation of several signaling pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), advanced glycation end products (AGE), and receptors of advanced glycation end products (RAGE). The results of molecular docking showed that the active ginseng ingredients bind well with the targets of MAPK3 and MAPK14. Conclusion: The main active compounds of ginseng in the treatment of PD may be ginsenosides, and the molecular mechanism may be related to key targets such as MAPK3, MAPK14, and EGFR. The MAPK and AGE-RAGE signaling pathways may also be involved.