Composition Of Charcoal Research Articles

Pengaruh variasi besar butir dan variasi komposisi bahan terhadap kinerja briket arang tempurung kelapa dan sekam padi

Abundant biomass waste is often thrown away. Careless disposal of waste will have a negative impact on environmental quality. Research regarding variations in composition and grain size of biomass waste charcoal briquettes on briquette performance is feasible. The aim of the research is to obtain briquettes that have high performance. The research method used was experimental research, coconut shell charcoal and rice husk charcoal, made in sizes 20 mesh, 60 mesh and 100 mesh. Then mixed with 15% starch adhesive with variations in the composition of coconut shell charcoal (TK): rice husk charcoal (SP), namely: I (75%:25%), II (50%:50%) and III (25%:75% ), After printing, the biket is dried in the sun and in the oven until it reaches a moisture content of (14-15)%. After the briquettes are dry, the heating value, flame duration and water boiling time are tested. In the calorific value test, the greater the composition (TK), the greater the calorific value produced. The highest heating value of 5937 kcal/kg was obtained from composition I, mesh 60 and the lowest heating value of 3714 kcal/kg was obtained from composition III mesh 60. The shortest flame duration of 1386.6 seconds occurred in mesh 20 composition III and the longest flame duration was 1933.2 seconds. obtained on mesh 100 composition I. In the Boilling Time test, it was found that the larger the grain size and the greater the composition of the coconut shell charcoal mixture in bioarang briquettes, the faster the water boiling time.

Utilization of cocoa pod husk and wood charcoal into briquettes as an environmentally friendly alternative fuel.

Many efforts have been made to convert cocoa pod husk waste into charcoal briquettes, but they have not yet met the established Indonesian National Standard(SNI). Therefore, steps are needed to produce charcoal briquettes that comply with these standards. One approach that can be taken is by blending cocoa podhusk with wood charcoal since wood charcoal has a sufficiently high calorific value that can enhance the quality of the charcoal briquettes. This research aimsto find the optimal conditions for making briquettes from cocoa pod husk and identify the impact of briquette composition and carbonization time on valuessuch as moisture content, ash content, calorific value, and burning rate of the produced briquettes. The research process includes carbonization, grinding, sieving, adding a binder, and drying, followed by testing the briquettes’ characteristics. This research was conducted by comparing the mass composition of cocoa pod husk charcoal and wood charcoal at ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, and 25:75, with carbonization times of 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 hours. The best analysis results, in accordance with the Indonesian National Standard (SNI), were obtained at a carbonization time of 2 hours with a composition of 50:50 (cocoa pod husk:wood charcoal). The values include a moisture content of 5.944%, ash content of 7.83571%, calorific value of 4388.5 kcal kg -1 , and burning rate of 0.0034 g second -1 . The length of the carbonization process has a significant impact on the characteristics of the resulting briquettes, including moisture content, ash content, calorific value and burning rate. The longer the carbonization process, the lower the moisture content and ash content, and the higher the heating value and burning rate.

Ceramic Membrane Made from Clay and Kaolin with a Mixture of Coconut Shell Activated Charcoal as a Groundwater Filter

Groundwater if the quality is not good if consumed will have an impact on health. The causes of poor groundwater quality include the value of Fe and Mn levels that exceed the established quality standards. Many methods can be done to overcome the quality of groundwater caused by high Fe and Mn levels, one of which is to use a ceramic membrane made from clay and kaolin with a variation of the coconut shell activated charcoal mixture in the composition of the ceramic membrane by 5%. 10% and 15%. The goal is to determine the effect of ceramic membranes with continuous flow systems on reducing content in clean water. Results showed that the percentage of decrease in Fe and Mn content produced by variations in the composition of coconut shell activated charcoal of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% was, respectively for average Fe levels of 15.85%, 69.44%, 75.02%, and 80.83%, and for average Mn levels of 0.00%, 5.71%, 10.00%, and 18.67%. The best variation in the composition of coconut shell-activated charcoal in clay and kaolin-based ceramic membranes in reducing Fe and Mn content in clean water to meet the quality standards of coconut shell-activated charcoal composition by 15%. It is expected that this activity can be used as a basis for further development in groundwater treatment using ceramic membranes made from clay and kaolin with the addition of coconut shell-activated charcoal composition.

MANUFACTURING COCONUT SHELL CHARCOAL BRICKETS AND SUGAR CANE AS ALTERNATIVE FUEL

The use of coconut shells and sugar cane bagasse as the main raw materials for making briquettes hasgreat potential as analternative fuel. The use of briquettes as fuel can produce heat with little smokewhich is environmentally friendly. The aim of the research was to determine the effect of the compositionof bagasse charcoal and coconut shell charcoal and the type of adhesive on the characteristics ofbriquettes. The variables used in this research were the mass ratio of coconut shell charcoal to bagassecharcoal (90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50) with a type of briquette adhesive in the form of tapiocaflour. Researchstages include raw material preparation, carbonization, briquetting and product analysis.The results of the research showed that the best briquette characteristics were found in briquettes withtapioca flour adhesive and a composition of bagasse charcoalversus coconut shell charcoal. The bestcharacteristics of briquettes are that the highest calorific value is in the ratio 60:40, namely 5,663 cal/gr,while the resistance during combustion is in the ratio 90:10, namely 2 hours 15 minutes.

The effect of the type and composition of husk charcoal on the growth of shallots

Shallots are a horticultural plant that is needed in large quantities as a vegetable, spice, and as an ingredient in traditional medicine. The high need and demand makes shallots economically valuable and efforts continue to be made to increase production output in the hope of being able to stabilize demand and affordable prices. This research aims to see the effect of the composition of adding husk charcoal on the growth of shallots. The method used in this research was an experimental method using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with direct experiments in a greenhouse. The composition of the husk charcoal used is reflected in the 4 treatments, namely T1 = 0% grilled husk charcoal biocompost + 100% soil (control), T2 = 25% grilled husk charcoal biocompost + 75% soil, T3 = 50% grilled husk charcoal biocompost + 50% soil, and T4 = 75% burnt husk charcoal biocompost + 25% soil. From these four treatments, growth was assessed, namely plant height, number of leaves, number of tillers, and plant weight (wet stem and dry stem). The research results were tested using mathematics using SPSS to see differences between treatments. The results of the research showed that the growth of shallots with the addition of different compositions achieved significant growth in the number of tillers and weight in wet and dry stems, while growth in height and number of leaves were not significantly different. So it can be concluded that with the composition of adding husk charcoal the highest number of tillers were in T3 and T4 while the highest weights were found in T1 and T2.

Pemanfaatan Arang Kayu, Tempurung an Sabut Kelapa Sebagai Bahan Bakar Pengasapan Ikan Nila (Oreochromis niloticus) Menggunakan Alat Pengasap Ikan Tipe Drum

Tilapia is a freshwater fish that is popular with many people, because its meat tastes savory and delicious. One way to process fish so that it lasts is by smoking the fish. This fish is smoked using a drum type smoker. This research aims to analyze the characteristics of smoked tilapia using several fuel components. The sample used was approximately 36 kg of fresh tilapia fish with fuel consisting of a composition of wood charcoal and coconut husks, wood charcoal and coconut shells, and a composition of coconut shells and coconut husks. The best treatment of the three fuel compositions used is the P2 treatment with a composition of 50% wood charcoal + 50% coconut shell, with an organoleptic value of appearance 8.60, aroma 8.33, taste 8.67 and texture 8.47, which means appearance whole, the color is less shiny, specific to the product, has a specific aroma of smoked fish that is less strong, has a specific taste of smoked fish that is less strong, and has a dense, compact texture, quite tight intertwining which has a weight loss of 35.5%, water content of 54.89% (in accordance with SNI), the yield is 64.49% and the amount of fuel used is 3.6 kg. Keywords: Coconut Fiber, Coconut Shell, Drum Type Smoker, Tilapia Fish Smoking, Wood Charcoal.

Charcoal morphologies and morphometrics of a Eurasian grass-dominated system for robust interpretation of past fuel and fire type

Abstract. Recent developments in morphological and morphometric analyses of charcoal particles have improved our ability to discern characteristics of burnt plant fuel and interpret fire-type changes. However, burning experiments linking known plants to these metrics are limited, particularly in open ecosystems. This study presents novel analyses of laboratory-produced charcoal of 22 plant species from the steppe regions of Eurasia (Romania and Russia), along with selected samples from three Holocene charcoal and pollen records from the same areas. We characterise charcoal production, morphologies and morphometrics in these grass-dominated environments, thereby enabling more robust interpretations of fuel sources and fire types for palaeofire research. Our experiments demonstrate that fire temperature can introduce biases in charcoal produced among species. Grass charcoal production was significantly lower and decreased more strongly with fire temperature compared to forbs. This suggests an underrepresentation of terrestrial graminoids in sedimentary charcoal assemblages. Morphometric analyses revealed that graminoid charcoal particles were more elongated (length-to-width ratio L/W=4) and narrower (width-to-length ratio W/L=0.38) than forbs (L/W=3.1 and W/L=0.42, respectively), in agreement with a global compilation for graminoids (L/W=4.3 for grass 5.4 grass and wetland graminoids) and forbs (L/W=2.9). However, overlapping L/W values present a challenge for establishing cut-off values for fuel type identification in charcoal assemblages with mixed fuel sources. Based on our analyses and compiled datasets from experimental burns, L/W values above 3.0 may indicate predominantly herbaceous morphologies in temperate grassland-dominated ecosystems, though values are likely to be higher for grass than forb-dominated grasslands. Notably, terrestrial grasses exhibit shorter aspect ratios (L/W=4.3) than wetland graminoids (L/W=6.4), highlighting that the aspect ratio needs tailoring to the specific environment of its application, i.e. wetland vs. terrestrial ecosystems. The long forms of graminoid charcoal particles also suggest their potential for atmospheric longer-distance transport compared to more spherical particles, meaning they likely provide insights into regional fire history. An important finding is that charcoal of herbaceous plants closely corresponded to the pollen record, highlighting a solid link between the dominant vegetation and fuel burnt in grassland-dominated environments. However, the relationship between woody charcoal and tree pollen may be more complex, as tree pollen can travel atmospherically longer distances compared to woody charcoal. Our results also highlight the complex interplay between local vegetation and charcoal composition with human fire use that needs to be considered when interpreting charcoal morphological records. A critical takeaway from this study is the importance of not assuming the universality of previous research findings and instead employing experimental approaches to characterise charcoal particles in new ecosystems prior to the application of these techniques. Furthermore, this study also highlights recommendations for further research in new geographical areas and proposes methodological adjustments to enhance the usefulness of charcoal analysis in fire research.

Evaluation of Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activities of Charcoal Obtained from Almond Tree Stem

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance has spurred the search for alternative antimicrobial agents for drug-resistant species. This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of charcoal obtained from the almond (Terminalia catappa) tree stem, commonly known as fruit in Nigeria. The charcoal was extracted from Terminalia catappa using the earth pit kiln method of carbonization, and its chemical composition was analyzed using the cold extraction method followed by qualitative phytochemical analysis. Mineral analysis was conducted using the wet acid digestion method, followed by spectrophotometric analysis using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) and Flame Absorption Spectrophotometer (FAS). Additionally, the antimicrobial activities of the charcoal were evaluated against ten (10) clinical isolates using the MIC/TTC and mycelial inhibition concentration method. The results revealed the presence of tannins, alkaloids, steroids, and flavonoids. Mineral analysis showed that K had the highest concentration in the order of K >Na > Ca, while trace element analysis indicated that Fe had the highest concentration in the order of Fe > Cr > Zn >Cu >Mn >Pb. Charcoal demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa at a concentration of 200 mg/ml with a minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) value of 50%, as well as against Aspergillus terreus with a growth inhibition value of 64% at a concentration of 100 mg/ml. These findings highlight the potential of Terminalia catappa stem charcoal as a natural antimicrobial agent and a promising source of raw materials for pharmaceutical applications.

Optimization of Making Charcoal Briquettes from Rice Husks with Variations in the Composition of Adhesive Materials and Compaction Pressure

This study was done to find a way to turn the rice husk trash. This study aims to generate high-quality briquettes by optimizing the composition of adhesive materials and compaction pressure during the production of briquettes from rice husks. This study's methodology was an experimental one. Testing briquette quality involves measuring their moisture content (%), ash content (%), and calorific value (cal/g) in accordance with SNI 01-6235-2000, which is the standard for briquette quality. The conclusion is briquette samples with a 70:30 composition of charcoal and adhesive and high compaction pressure are the most ideal samples, as evidenced by the fact that they passed the moisture content test and created products with the lowest ash content and highest calorific value.

Briquette from Candlenut Shell Charcoal and Polypropylene Plastic Waste From The Kefamenanu Landfill

This research aimed to determine the optimum composition of polypropylene plastic and candlenut shell charcoal in briquettes production. The percentage of briquette mixture was CK100:0PP, CK75:25PP, CK50:50PP, CK25:75PP and CK0:100PP. The moisture content of the briquettes obtained was as follows CK100:0PP (6.33%), CK75:25PP (4.18%), CK50:50PP (2.63%), CK25:75PP (1.90%) and CK0: 100PP (0.77%). Ash content was CK100:0PP (0.51%), CK75:25PP (18.82%), CK50:50PP (9.09%), CK25:75PP (3.26%) and CK0:100PP (1.74%). The level of flying substances was CK100:0PP (33.53%), CK75:25PP (51.52%), CK50:50PP (52.37%), CK25:75PP (60.99%) and CK0:100PP (72.96%). Fixed carbon was CK100:0PP (59.63%), CK75:25PP (25.48%), CK50:50PP (35.91%), CK25:75PP (33.85%) and CK0:100PP (24.52 %). Calorific value was CK100:0PP (2,902.31 cal/gr), CK75:25PP (9,292.45 cal/gr), CK50:50PP (8,155.53 cal/gr), CK25:75PP (9,094.69 cal/gr) and CK0:100PP (10,808.30 cal/gr). Compressive strength was CK75:25PP (50.31 Kgf/cm2), CK50:50PP (44.67 Kgf/cm2), CK25:75PP (36.11 Kgf/cm2) and CK0:100PP (33.85 Kgf/cm2). The optimum composition of briquettes from a mixture of polypropylene plastic and candlenut shell charcoal was CK25:75PP.

Comparative Physical and Organoleptic Properties, Nutritional Composition, and Safety of Charcoal and Oven Smoked Noiler Meat Spiced Asun.

Five Matured Noiler chickens 3 months old weighing 3kg±120g were used for the experiment. The birds have fasted for 16 hours without food but with a supply of fresh cool water. The birds were slaughtered and dressed conventionally. The breast meat was excised within one-hour post-mortem and used for the preparation of Asun using charcoal and oven smoking. The breast meats were cut into fillets of average weight without bone; the fillets were spiced, rubbed with vegetable oil, and smoked using charcoal and oven to an internal temperature of 720C for 20 minutes with regular turning. The result shows a significant difference (p<0.05) in the nutritional and chemical composition of raw and smoke Noiler meat. The charcoal and oven-smoked Asun were not different, but both differ from the raw. The organoleptic properties show no significant difference (p>0.05) in color, aroma, and texture while flavor, juiciness, and overall acceptability differ. There was a significantly different (p>0.05) in WHC, cooking loss, and cooking yield. Preparation of Asun using charcoal and oven smoking contributed to the nutritional component except for the moisture content. The cholesterol, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, and amines were also increased. The value obtained shows that charcoal and oven-smoked Noiler meat Asun is safe for consumption and has no negative effect, also impacts positively on both the physical and organoleptic properties of the prepared product and therefore, recommended for the preparation of Asun using Noiler meat.

Pengaruh Temperatur Karbonisasi Terhadap Karakteristik Briket Berbasis Arang Sekam Padi Dan Tempurung Kelapa

The effects of carbonized temperature on the briket-based properties of rice husks and coconut shells. This study aims to determine the effects of carbonization on brique-based, rice husk and coconut shell which include water content, ash content, volatile matter content, and calorific value. The research method used in this study is purely experimental within a process of carbonization of rice husk divested by free variables at temperatures of 300°C, 400°C, and 500°C for 30 minutes and carbonized coconut shells with a constant variable temperature of 500°C for 2 hours. Measures of a rice chaff and coconut shell of 200 mesh. Making briquettes with fixed variables, namely the composition of rice husk charcoal: coconut shell charcoal = 1: 3 (5 g:15 g) and printed using a pressure of 99.91 kPa. Then do the testing of water content, ash content, volatile matter and heating value. Test results on each type of briquettes with variations in the temperature of 300°C rice husk carbonization and 500°C coconut shell, 400oC rice husk carbonization temperature and 500°C coconut shell and 500°C rice husk carbonization temperature and 500°C coconut shell temperature were respectively obtained for 0.78% water content , 0.56% and 0.41%, ash content of 42.40%, 35.50% and 32.70%, volatile matter of 26.19%, 24.92% and 24.38%, and calorific value amounted to 3381.70 cal/g, 4261.50 cal/g, and 4621.50 cal/g.

Stable carbon isotopes of woods during carbonization and their correlation with climatic factors.

To explore the applicability of the carbon isotope composition (δ13C) of fossil charcoal for the quantitative reconstruction of paleoclimates, we selected five points in Shaanxi province, from north to south, to collect modern Pinus species and Quercus species to sample covering areas with obvious climatic differences. In order to reveal the relationships between δ13C of charcoal and climate variables on the basis of carbonization experiments, we evaluated the fractionation mechanism of δ13C of charcoal, and compared the differences between δ13C of charcoal in wildfire experiments and indoor experiments regarding genera and species. The results showed significant differences in δ13C between genera but no significant differences among species. Additionally, the δ13C of charcoal was significantly negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with evaporation, which could be determined from δ13C values in the study area to reconstruct ancient precipitation and evaporation in the future.

Efektivitas Komposisi Media Tanam Arang Sekam dan Cocopeat terhadap Pertumbuhan dan Produktivitas Labu Madu Hibrida

Pumpkin honey is a plant that has high economic value. In addition, honey pumpkin contains nutrients such as Provitamin A, Protein, Carbohydrates, Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron, Vitamin B, and, Vitamin C. The thing that must be considered to increase productivity in cultivation is the planting medium. A good planting medium is a planting medium that complies with the principles of GAP (Good Agriculture Practices), which does not contain contaminants of hazardous and toxic materials (B3). Husk charcoal and cocopeat are organic materials that can be used to mix planting media. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the composition of rice husk charcoal and cocopeat growing media on the growth and productivity of honey pumpkins. This study used a randomized block design (RAK) with seven treatments and four replications. The treatments studied were control (V0); 1 cup of husk charcoal (V1); 2 cups of husk charcoal (V2); 1 cup cocopeat (V3); 2 cups cocopeat (V4); 1 cup charcoal husk + 1 cup cocopeat (V5); 2 cups of husk charcoal + 2 cocopeat (V6). The results showed that there was an interaction beetwen the growing media on vegetative and generative growth, productivity, and high quality of honey pumpkin plants.

Study of Pore Length and Chemical Composition of Charcoal that Results from the Pyrolysis of Coconut Shell in Bolaang Mongondow, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Charcoal of coconut shell is produced by pyrolysis at 300oC and chemically activated using HCl. Both pyrolysis charcoal and chemical activation were measured and analyzed by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The functional groups found O-H, aliphatic C-H, aromatic C=C, C-O, and aromatic C-H. The distribution of pyrolysis charcoal pore length and chemical activation increased from 362 nm-1.02 µm to 1.10 µm-1.52 µm. The composition of carbon elements in the mass % of pyrolysis charcoal and chemical activation increased from 86.11% to 88.93%.

Mitigation of soil resistivity using composition of zeolite, NaCl, and charcoal

The grounding resistance value is directly proportional to soil resistivity. The resistance value is better as low as possible for the equipment body grounding. The purpose is to provide a path of the short circuit current flows to the ground as protection and safety personal and also the equipment. The soil resistivity great is influenced by moisture and substance content in the soil. The highland soil and rocky soil commonly are poor the soil resistivity. Transmission line towers can be not avoided through the highland region. To reduce the soil resistivity value can widely be carried out by addition low material resistance (LMR) or LMR composite other materials. This research, to mitigate the value of the soil resistivity can be carried out by addition low material resistance (LMR) Zeolite composite with NaCl, Charcoal, and Soil. Various compositions of the LMR, NaCl, and Charcoal were used to find the lowest grounding resistance at certain depth. The three-point method was used to measure the grounding resistance value. The research result gives information that best composition is 90% Zeolite, 5% NaCL and 5% charcoal for the rod depth of 1.2m, the resistance decrease from 94.3Ω down to 5.3Ω (94.4%). The LMR Zeolite is dominant influence to reduce the grounding resistance.

Pengaruh Komposisi Media Tanam Organik Arang Sekam Dan Pupuk Kotoran Sapi Terhadap Pertumbuhan dan Kelangsungan Hidup Tanaman Cabai Merah (Capsicum annum L.) dan Cabai Rawit (Capsicum frutescens L.)

This study aims to determine the effect of organic growing media composition of husk charcoal and cow dung on the growth and survival of red chili (Capsicum annum L.) and cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.). The research was conducted in November 2019 – February 2020 in Faennake Village, North Bikomi District, TTU Regency. The method used in this study is an experimental method with a two-factor randomized block design with five treatments and four replications. The first factor is a large red chili plant. The second factor is cayenne pepper plants with different planting media treatments. The parameters studied were plant height, number of leaves, number of fruit, number of productive branches and plant survival of red chili and cayenne pepper. Data were analyzed through ANOVA with an error rate of 0.5% and to determine the difference between treatments using Duncan's multiple range test with a significance level of 5%. The results showed that the survival of red chili and cayenne pepper in each treatment was good because each planting medium was able to meet the needs of these plants. As for the growth in the treatment of 50% soil, 25% husk charcoal, 25% cow dung, it showed a good effect where in red chili plants the plant height at 45 DAP was 59.5 cm. And for cayenne pepper plants at 45 DAP, which is 50.75 cm. From the observations, it can be concluded that the composition of the growing media 50% soil plus 25% husk charcoal and 25% cow manure was able to increase the growth and yield of Capsicum annum L. and Capsicum frutescens L. plants.

Analysis The Effect of Coconut Shell Charcoal Mixed Doses and Adhesive In Characteristics Jamu Dregs Briquettes

Briquette is an alternative simple fuel that has a relatively high calorific value, so it has the potential to reduce the use of firewood and fuel oil (BBM). Herbal waste is one of the biomass materials that came from the rest of the material in the production of herbal medicine made from medicinal plants. Utilization of herbal dregs as briquettes has been implemented by PT. Industri Jamu dan Farmasi Sido Muncul. Tbk, as fuel for boiler engines. Making briquettes from biomass requires the addition of materials, one of which is coconut shell charcoal and adhesives such as molasses and tapioca flour to improve the physical properties of the briquettes. Briquettes with good quality have a maximum moisture content and ash content of 8%, a heating value of more than 5000 cal/gram, a constant combustion temperature of 350℃ for a long period of time and is easily flammable. The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of briquettes based on the value of water content, ash content, combustion temperature, combustion rate, and calorific value. Variable treatment with the addition of coconut shell charcoal with several doses of 10%, 20%, and 30% and variations of adhesive materials. Data analysis was performed by using two-factor ANOVA statistical test. The results showed that briquettes with tapioca flour adhesive and 30% coconut shell charcoal composition had the best characteristics of briquettes compared to other variations.

Pengaruh Komposisi Media Tanam Arang Sekam Dan Pupuk Kandang Domba Terhadap Pertumbuhan Sambung Pucuk Tanaman Avokad (Persea americana Mill) Varietas Sindangreret

The experiment was carried out in Karangbungur Village, Buahdua, Sumedang at an altitude of 170 meters above sea level. The experiment was carried out from July to August 2020. The aim of the experiment was to determine and study the effect of the interaction between the composition of the husk charcoal growing media and sheep manure on the grafting growth of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) Sindangreret variety. The experimental design used was a factorial randomized block design (RBD) consisting of 2 factors and repeated 3 times. The first factor is husk charcoal (a) consisting of 3 levels, namely a0 (0 t ha-1) a1 (9 t ha-1) a2 (18 t ha-1). The second factor is sheep manure consisting of 3 levels, namely b0 (0 t ha-1) b1 (9 t ha-1) b2 (18 t ha-1). The results showed that there was an interaction with root volume and no interaction with shoot emergence time, shoot length (4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 weeks after connection), number of leaves (6, 7, and 8 weeks after connection), and the percentage of live connections.

Топливо для кремаций середины I тыс. н. э. Среднего Поволжья

The paper presents results of charcoal and macrofossil analysis of the cremation burial grounds of the Imenkovo culture that occupied the Middle Volga region in 400—650 CE. We analyzed assemblages from four necropolises: Bogorodski, Maklasheevka 4, Komarovka and a burial ground from Zhigulevsk 2 site. Charred remains were recorded at the bottom of burials, among cremated bones or in the in-fill of graves and mortuary vessels. The assemblages contained charcoal, caryopses and stems of millet and cereals, seeds and stems of grasses and weeds, and shoots of thorny shrubs. The size of the charcoal pieces did not exceed 3 cm, being much smaller in most burials. The species composition of charcoal from cremations indicates that all locally-available woody taxa were used for the funeral pyre, instead of choosing certain types of trees for ritual purposes. Thus, the composition of the cremation fuel reflected the vegetation composition of the encasing landscape. Dominant charred taxa in the Imenkovo cremations were Tilia and Betula (linden and birch), the typical components of the “slash-and-burn landscape” of the Middle Volga region during this period. Despite the fact that all the burial grounds were located at the higher grounds in the landscape, the presence of riverine taxa — Alnus, Salix, and Ulmus (willow, alder and elm) and abundance of charred herbaceous remains in the charcoal spectra points at floodplains or mouths of gullies as a probable location of cremation platforms. An important detail of the funeral rite, revealed by the research, is placing unhulled millet, soaked and germinated before cremation, into the funeral pyre.