Ant Composition Research Articles

Nest Biota and Composition of Household Ants in Lafia Local Government Area, Nasarawa State

Household ants are an important group of insect pests because of their close association with man. However, there is less data on their role in the mechanical spread of diseases in the study area. Therefore, this study investigated ant species and the soil microbes in their nest in Lafia Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria in August, 2023. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 60 households across three developmental areas using hand-picking methods for ants’ collection as well as soil samples collection from available nests which were transferred in sample containers and transported to the laboratory for ants’ identification, parasitological analysis and culture. 3,015 ants belonging to five subfamilies, 15 genera and 17 species were collected. The most dominant ant was Brachyponera sennaarensis (21.43%), while Solenopsis spp. was least dominant (0.23%). Of the selected ants screened, none had ecto and endo-parasites. Although three (3) species of soil transmitted helminths were found in the soil analyzed using sedimentation method and the modified Baermann’s funnel technique in which Strongyloides starcoralis 16(26.67%) was more prevalent. Ants were also contaminated with (13) species of bacteria of which Escherichia coli was the most frequent (22.63%) pathogenic bacteria. Candida spp. was also recorded in the study. Consequently, Households in the study sites show increasingly high number of ants due to their efficient feeding and nesting activities; this may support the mechanical spread of helminths and soil pathogenic microbes, therefore proper sanitation as well as integrated control measures against ant infestation should be given due consideration.

Shedding light on overlooked pollinators: Global insights into floral interactions of velvet ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae and Myrmosidae)

AbstractPlant–animal interactions constitute a recurrent and central focus in ecological research, with pollination representing one of its most extensively studied aspects. While certain insect orders have traditionally received considerable attention due to their abundance as flower visitors and their efficiency in pollination, it is undeniable that the significance of other less popular and neglected flower visitors cannot be overlooked. In this regard, velvet ants (Hymenoptera: Mutillidae and Myrmosidae) constitute an excellent study model, as the knowledge of their ecology (e.g., their feeding preferences) is still very limited despite being reported as common flower visitors. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive global review of velvet ant floral visitation patterns using citizen science data, literature records and unpublished data. We used network metrics to explore their flower‐visit preferences on a global scale, as well as depending on the bioregion where the interaction was recorded and the sex of the velvet ants. In addition, we explored their potential role as pollen vectors examining the number of photographic records where velvet ants had pollen attached to their bodies. Our analyses revealed that velvet ants are generalist flower visitors of a wide range of plant families, with Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae and Fabaceae as the most visited. Despite differences in flowering plant and velvet ant composition across bioregions causing differences in plant‐velvet ant interactions, velvet ants visited flowering plants in a generalistic way across the globe. Males and females seemed to visit different plant communities, with males being more generalist than females. Furthermore, 42.7% (likely an underestimation) of the photographic records of velvet ants visiting flowers showed pollen attached to their bodies in the same way as in other pollinating insects, suggesting the same potential role as pollinators. There remains ample scope for ongoing investigation to comprehensively assess the importance of numerous arthropods, including velvet ants, not only as flower visitors but also as potential pollinators.

Diversity and Species Composition of Ants in Urban and Suburban Environments in Bejaia City (Algeria)

We conducted an ant inventory in urban and suburban spaces in Bejaia city to deal with this need for more information about ant biodiversity in the Algerian urban environment. The two methods, hand collecting and pitfall traps, are carried out 24 days in three months (May, June, and July) of 2022. In the urban habitats, 2,653 ant individuals were collected, comprising ten species, six genera and three subfamilies. In the suburban habitats, 6,706 ant specimens were collected, comprising 19 species, 11 genera, and three subfamilies. The most abundant subfamilies in both urban and suburban habitats are Formicinae, followed by Myrmicinae and Dolichoderinae. The results showed that suburban habitats are more diversified (H’= 1.72) than urban habitats (H’= 1.25). The equitability values for suburban and urban habitats are moderate, with 0.58 and 0.54, respectively. The Jaccard similarity index value is 0.45, indicating an essential turnover of ant species between urban and suburban habitats. The ant community’s composition differed between sampled sites (NMDS, Stress = 0.013). The average dissimilarity (as per SIMPER) was 90.37%. Four species (T. simrothi, L. cf. grandis, P. cicatricosa, and L. myops) contributed to 70% of the differences between sites of urban and suburban habitats.

Analysis of Ant Composition and Exploration of Protease Digestion Conditions

Analysis of Ant Composition and Exploration of Protease Digestion Conditions

Agricultural landscape composition alters ant communities in maize fields more than plant diversity enrichment

Abstract. Pasaribu DN, Rizali A, Tarno H, Priawandiputra W, Johannis M, Buchori D. 2024. Agricultural landscape composition alters ant communities in maize fields more than plant diversity enrichment. Biodiversitas 25: 205-213. Fragmented natural habitats in human-modified landscapes play a crucial role in conserving biodiversity. Ants, as keystone species, are integral to terrestrial ecosystems, making it essential to comprehend the factors influencing their survival. This study investigates the impact of agricultural landscape composition and plant diversity enrichment (flowering plants) management on shaping ant communities in maize (Zea mays L.) fields. The research occurred in maize fields surrounded by other crops, semi-natural habitats, and housing areas in Malang District, East Java, Indonesia. The four agricultural areas were divided into control and treatment plots, considering landscape composition parameters, particularly Class Area (CA) and the Number of Patches (NP), measured within a 500 m radius. The landscape around the maize fields was characterized by manually digitizing land use. Six types of plant diversity enrichment were employed in this study: wild cosmos (Cosmos caudatus), white buttercup (Turnera subulata), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), long bean (Vigna unguiculata), ornamental bean (Arachis pintoi), and coral vine (Antigonon leptopus). The study was divided into the dry season (April-July 2022) and the wet season (September-December 2022). Ant sampling was conducted using pitfall traps and, based on generalized linear models, revealed that plant diversity enrichment management did not affect species richness, abundance, or composition of ants. Landscape composition positively influenced ant species richness but negatively impacted species composition, particularly the number of semi-natural habitat patches. Maize crop age also positively influenced ant species richness but negatively affected beta diversity. Wet season was also found to have a negative effect on beta diversity. In conclusion, the proportion of semi-natural habitats in agricultural landscapes and crop age contribute significantly to species richness and species composition of ants.

Семей аймағы құмырсқаларының түрлік құрамы

This article presents the results of work on the species composition and biology of ants in the Semipalatinsk region. The characteristics of the main species of ants are given. Currently, there are about 15,800 species of formicides worldwide, of which about 117 species are found in Kazakhstan. The study of ants of the Semipalatinsk region was carried out in the spring and summer of 2021-2022. The research was carried out in the pine forest of the Semipalatinsk region, in the village of Bobrovka, on the island of Beibitshilik, in the village of Ptichnik, in the village of Vostochny, on the land of the old Kurgan and in settlements on the right and left banks of the Irtysh River. According to the results of the study, 25 species belonging to 6 relatives of formicides were identified, among which representatives of the relatives Formica, Camponotus, Cataglyphis, Myrmica, Lasius are most often found. According to the quantitative relationships, the genus Formica is 44%, the genus Camponotus is 20%, the genus Cataglyphis is 4%, the genus Myrmica is 20%, the genus Lasius is 8%, and the genus Monomorium is 4%.

Ground-dwelling ant diversity in forests and agricultural land use at Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Thailand

Abstract. Khongthawie S, Hasin S, Ponpinij S, Pinkaew N. 2023. Ground-dwelling ant diversity in forests and agricultural land use at Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Thailand. Biodiversitas 24: 5937-5946. Ants play essential roles in terrestrial ecosystems, for example, soil engineers, seed dispersers, biological control agents, and indicators to monitor environmental stress and disturbance. This research aimed to study the diversity and community composition of ground-dwelling ants at Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve and its surrounding areas. Pitfall traps collected ground-dwelling ants from three habitat types: agricultural areas, dry dipterocarp forests, and dry evergreen forests; the environmental factor in this work was soil temperature. The results revealed that 109 ant species in 40 genera belonging to 8 subfamilies. Notably, the dry dipterocarp forest exhibited the highest ant diversity with 71 species, followed by the dry evergreen forest and agricultural area with 62 and 54 species, respectively. Overall, the present study reveals that soil temperature and vegetation significantly influenced ant species composition; ant species being more likely to be found in forests than in agricultural areas, and species classified as uncommon groups based on occurrence were the largest group in every study site. Besides, the information on ant species obtained from this work had the potential to be used as bioindicator species for ecosystem management and human impacts on forests.

Complexity of cacao production systems affects terrestrial ant assemblages

Given the rapid changes in tropical agricultural production, the evaluation of different management practices has gained interest to determine the effects of land-use change on biodiversity. The conversion of forests into agricultural land is one of the main drivers of diversity loss. Agroforestry systems have been shown as a promising option to provide suitable yields in addition to conserving biodiversity. In this study we compared species richness and community composition of terrestrial ants in six different systems in a long-term experimental site established in 2009 in Bolivia: a full-sun monoculture and an agroforestry system under conventional management, a full-sun monoculture and an agroforestry system under organic management, a highly diverse and dense agroforestry system without external inputs and a secondary forest. Using pitfall traps, we sampled ants four times during a seven-year period (2015-2021). We collected a total of 85 ant species belonging to 6 sub-families and 41 genera. More than 80% of the species were recorded in less than 10% of the traps. Species richness did not significantly differ between the systems. However, species composition mainly differed between the fallow and the production systems, and within the latter, it followed the management intensity gradient, i.e., complex agroforestry, agroforestry and monocultures. The indicator species analysis clearly showed species exclusively associated with one or more production systems, whereas others were only associated with the secondary forest. Species with specialised trophic roles were more frequent in forest and agroforestry systems. Our results showed that the disturbance generated by cultivation was the main driver differentiating ant communities, but also reinforced the importance of the complexity and management intensity of the production system. These results have strong implications for landscape management and highlights the importance of preserving natural patches of forest but also diverse and complex agroforestry systems within the agricultural matrix for ant diversity conservation.

The effects of anthropogenic disturbance and seasonality on the ant communities of Lang Tengah Island.

Anthropogenic disturbances and seasonal changes significantly impact diversity and community composition of ants, but their effects are often intertwined. We investigated these drivers on Lang Tengah Island, a location with a pronounced monsoon season and three resorts that close during this period. We surveyed four sites, two disturbed and two undisturbed, before and after the monsoon season, using pitfall traps to sample epigaeic ant communities. Undisturbed habitats had higher species diversity, but both habitats (undisturbed and disturbed sites) have a high proportion of ants with characteristics of being encroached by generalist and invasive/tramp ant species. Post-monsoon sampling yielded an increase in species richness and diversity. Seasonal changes, such as monsoonal rains, can temporarily alter ant interactions and resource distribution, potentially maintaining diversity. Future studies should validate these findings for ant communities under similar pressures, using ant composition and functional roles for conservation and management purposes.

Impact of urbanization on the ant diversity: a case study on teak plantation in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Ant communities play an important role in a teak agroecosystem. However, ant diversity is affected by urbanization. The purpose of this study was to determine the diversity and composition of ants in teak plantations in urban and rural areas. This study was conducted in July 2022 at three plantations in two regencies (Gowa and Maros) and one city (Makassar) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Gowa and Maros are located in rural areas, while Makassar is located in urban areas. Ants were sampled using a pitfall canopy. At each plantation, 20 trees were sampled randomly for pitfall installation. Ants were identified to the genera level and morphospecies. Ant’s diversity was analyzed using the Shannon Wiener, Simpson, and Evenness index and analysis of dissimilarity (Anosim). Total 273 individual ants samples were collected from 10 species and four subfamilies from three teak plantations in South Sulawesi. Crematogaster sp.1 was the most abundant ant among all the collected samples. Based upon the different indexes, the highest ant diversity was found in Gowa followed by Maros, while the lowest diversity was found in Makassar. The level of ant dominance in Makassar was higher than other two studied areas. The highest species evenness index was also found in Gowa and followed by Maros. The species composition in the three teak plantations was also not similar. Each location had their unique species composition than the other locations. This indicated that urbanization causes negative impacts on ants diversity and evenness as well as increase the dominance of ant species in teak plantations.

Quantifying ant diversity and community in a subalpine forest mosaic: a comparison of two methods

Sampling efficiency, composition and detection biases associated with pitfall-trap and sample plot (standardised hand-collecting) methods were compared at seven high montane sites at Lasha Mountain, Yunnan, China. Rarefaction-interpolation curves showed total species diversity and sample coverage from each method were undifferentiated. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance showed highly overlapping communities. However, of all species collected, just 53% of all species found were shared between the two methods; 30% were exclusive to sample plot samples and 17% were exclusive to pitfall traps. Modelled comparisons of species richness (alpha) and proportion of species from the population (beta diversity) showed differences between methods. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance blocked by site showed community composition differed between methods, defined largely by the presence of a few dominant species.Implications for insect conservation: Our findings suggest that results from the two methods cannot be directly compared and are imperfect substitutes to one another. For long-term monitoring of biodiversity in complex forest mosaic systems, we suggest integrating a suite of complementary methods to achieve more complete representation of ant composition and diversity.

Agroforestry improves soil fauna abundance and composition in the Atlantic Forest of Paraguay

Edaphic fauna is a major determinant of agricultural soil quality, but few studies have investigated soil fauna in different agroforestry systems. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of agroforestry plantations of Ilex paraguariensis on the abundance and composition of ants, earthworms, and nematodes in two agronomic systems, conventional and agroecological, and three plantation types (pathsides, agricultural field edges, and islets) in the Atlantic Forest in Paraguay. The study was conducted on 26 plots distributed in the different agronomic systems and plantation types (three plots per combination of agronomic system and plantation type, with a total of 18 plots, plus eight control plots). We compared agroforestry plots with non-agroforestry plots and with natural forests. Eighteen individuals of different native species (Cordia americana, Cedrela fissilis, Handroanthus impetiginosus, Handroanthus albus, Peltophorum dubium, and Cordia trichotoma) were planted in each plot, together with five individuals of I. paraguariensis (total of 2300 individuals ha−1). The agroforestry scheme increased the abundance and improved the composition of beneficial soil fauna in the two agricultural systems. The agroecological system showed 238% higher abundance of ants and 90% higher abundance of earthworms than the conventional one. In both systems, the agroforestry scheme led to lower abundance of deleterious Atta sexden and Acromyrmex spp. leafcutter ants and higher abundance of beneficial species. The three plantation types increased the abundance of beneficial species. Agroforestry plots, particularly those in an agroecological system, were more similar to reference forest than to non-agroforestry plots. Our results suggest that the composition of soil fauna at the study site was significantly affected by the agroforestry scheme and, agronomic system, but not by plantation type. These results support the advantages of agroforestry and agroecological systems for favoring the diversity of soil fauna and related ecosystem services, which may help guide the design of successful agroforestry interventions.

Diversity and assembly composition of arboreal ants in a west African humid forest‐savannah mosaic

AbstractIn the tropical forest‐savannah mosaic of Lamto Reserve in Ivory Coast ants play an important role in the biodiversity conservation. This work aimed to explore the structure and composition of the arboreal ant assemblages in a forest‐savannah mosaic located in central Côte d'Ivoire. Ants were collected by baited trap (Protein bait: tuna and sugar bait: sweet milk) and beating of low vegetation. During the entire sampling campaign, 59 ant species belonging to 18 genera and five subfamilies (Formicinae, Ponerinae, Myrmicinae, Dolichoderinae and Pseudomyrmecinae) were recorded. The mean ant species richness of shrub savannah (SS) was significantly lower than of both forest island (FI) and forest gallery. Likewise, a significant difference was observed for species composition when comparing the arboreal ant communities of SS, gallery forest and FI.

The changing dynamics of ant-tree cholla mutualisms along a desert urbanization gradient.

Urbanization, among the most widespread and multifaceted anthropogenic change drivers, exerts strong influences on a diversity of ecological communities worldwide. We have begun to understand how urbanization affects species diversity, yet we still have limited knowledge about the ways that species interactions are altered by urbanization. We have an especially poor understanding of how urbanization influences stress-buffering mutualisms, despite the high levels of multivariate stress that urban organisms must overcome and the importance of these interactions to the fitness of many organisms. In this study, we investigated the effects of urbanization on a mutualism between tree cholla cacti (Cylindropuntia imbricata) and visiting ants. We first examined how plant size, ant species composition, and ant activity varied on C. imbricata across an urbanization gradient (urban, suburban, wild) in and around Albuquerque, NM. Ant species composition and activity varied significantly across the urbanization gradient, with ant communities from wildlands having the highest activity and the most dissimilar species composition compared to both suburban and urban sites. In contrast, plant size remained constant regardless of site type. We then experimentally assessed how nectar levels influenced ant aggressive encounters with proxy prey (Drosophila melanogaster larvae) on C. imbricata across urban and wild sites. Ants were more likely to discover, attack, and remove proxy prey in wild sites compared to urban sites; they also performed these behaviors more quickly in wild sites. Nectar supplementation had weaker effects on ant aggression than urbanization, but consistently increased the speed at which aggressive behaviors occurred. Future studies that examine nectar quality and herbivorous arthropod abundance may help explain why this strong difference in ant composition and aggression was not associated with lower plant fitness proxies (i.e. size traits). Nevertheless, this study provides unique insight into the growing body of work demonstrating that mutualisms vary significantly across urbanization gradients.

Does habitat type in no‐tillage agroecosystems influence ground‐dwelling macroarthropod community structure? A case study in KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa

AbstractLoss of biodiversity in agroecosystems has negative implications for crop production and the functioning of the ecosystem. As such, agroecologists advocate minimum tillage practices in order to conserve biological diversity. To establish the influence of agricultural practices on biodiversity, we compared the species richness, abundance and composition of beetles, ants, spiders and small groups of ground dwelling arthropods in a veld and three agroecosystems (maize, sugarcane and multispecies pasture) under minimum tillage. Sampling was by pitfall trapping during the summer rainfall season in December 2019. Although ants were the most abundant (47%), followed by beetles (31%); beetles were the most speciose making up 40% of the morphospecies followed by spiders (31%). The veld had significantly greater relative proportion of species richness of spiders (54%) than the three agroecosystems, while significantly low relative proportion of species richness of ants was in the pasture (6%) compared to the veld (63%). Species richness and abundance of beetles were similar across habitat types. The four habitats supported different assemblages of ants, beetles and spiders. The differences in species composition among the habitats support the notion that agricultural practices with minimum soil disturbance enhance conservation of biological diversity, particularly, specialist species.

Induced drought strongly affects richness and composition of ground-dwelling ants in the eastern Amazon.

Species loss in tropical regions is forecast to occur under environmental change scenarios of low precipitation. One of the main questions is how drought will affect invertebrates, a key group for ecosystem functioning. We use 1year of data from a long-term rainwater exclusion experiment in primary Amazonian rainforest to test whether induced water stress and covarying changes in soil moisture, soil respiration, and tree species richness, diversity, size, and total biomass affected species richness and composition (relative abundance) of ground-dwelling ants. Data on ant abundance and environmental variables were collected at two sites (control and experimental) in the Eastern Amazon. Since 2002, drought has been induced in the experimental plot by excluding 50% of normal rainfall. Ant species richness in the experiment plot was reduced and some generalist species responded positively. Ant species richness also increased in the experimental plot with increasing diversity of the plant species of the leaf litter. The relative abundance of ants differed between plots. The experimental plot was characterized by a higher frequency of generalist and other species that appeared to be favored by the reduction in rainfall. Between-plot comparisons suggested loss and changes in ant species composition in tropical forests were affected by increasing dryness. These changes could ultimately lead to cascading effects on ecosystem processes and the services they mediate.

Species Richness, Density, Activity, and Composition of Ground-dwelling Ants in the Humid Forest Zone of Southern Cameroon: Role of Vegetation Cover and Abiotic Factors.

The destruction of natural habitats is among the major factors responsible for the decrease in species diversity and distribution. This study focused on the effect of vegetation and its interaction with the season on ant species richness, density, activity, and composition in the three dominant habitats - forest, fallow, and mixed crop field - prevailing in southern Cameroon. Ants were sampled using two sampling techniques -pitfall trap and quadrat - in fallows, forest, and mixed crop fields from May 2007 to April 2008. Average ant species richness did not differ between fallow and forest, but the number of species in both habitats was higher compared with mixed-crop field. Species richness was also higher during the short dry season compared with other seasons. Species density was higher in mixed-crop field and in the long dry season. Species activity was similar in the three habitats, but it was higher during the long-wet season. Species richness, activity, and density were lower at low altitude. Vegetation and season affected the composition of ant species, but not the interaction between the two factors. The highest dissimilarity index was observed between mixed crop-field and forest while between seasons, it was between the short-wet and the long dry season. These results suggest that vegetation cover and abiotic factors interact to determine the distribution, density, activity, and composition of ant species. Identifying key drivers among environmental factors could help to understand the response of species to the variation of those factors in the context of climate change.

Faunal composition, diversity, and distribution of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of Dhofar Governorate, Oman, with updated list of the Omani species and remarks on zoogeography

The Sultanate of Oman is a country on the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula, near the intersection of the Afrotropical, Palaearctic, and Indomalayan biogeographic realms. We surveyed ants at 18 sites between 16 and 22 November 2017 using beating sheets, hand picking, Malaise traps, sifting trays, sweeping net, and light traps on the coastal plains and monsoon slopes of Dhofar Governorate in southwest Oman, an area that is relatively verdant due to its exposure to monsoons between June and September. We collected 37 ant species, including 11 species recorded for the first time from Oman: Camponotus diplopunctatus Emery, 1915, Cardiocondyla minutior Forel, 1899, Cardiocondyla wroughtonii (Forel, 1890), Carebara arabica (Collingwood & van Harten, 2001), Leptanilla islamica Baroni Urbani, 1977, Monomorium clavicorne André, 1881, Monomorium floricola (Jerdon, 1851), Monomorium sahlbergi Emery, 1898, Strumigenys membranifera Emery, 1869, Anochetus sedilloti Emery, 1884, and Hypoponera ragusai (Emery, 1894). In total, 130 ant species are now known from Oman, including 53 from Dhofar. The known ants of Dhofar are primarily of Afrotropical origin (23 species, 43%), followed by Palearctic (20 species, 38%), and Indomalayan (4 species, 8%), and a single species from both the Malagasy and Neotropical Regions (1%). Five species (9%) are apparently endemic to Dhofar, Lepisiota dhofara Collingwood & Agosti, 1996, Lepisiota elbazi Sharaf & Hita Garcia, 2020, Crematogaster jacindae Sharaf & Hita Garcia, 2019, Meranoplus mosalahi Sharaf, 2019, and Nesomyrmex micheleae Sharaf, 2020. The zoogeography of the Omani ant fauna reflects a clear dominance of faunal elements from the Palearctic Region (68 species, 53%) followed by Afrotropical faunal elements (45 species, 34%), and five species that are broadly spread throughout both the Palearctic and the Afrotropical Regions (4%). There are nine species (6%) from the Indomalayan Region, two species from the Neotropical Region (2%), T. melanocephalum, C. emeryi, and a single species Ph. megacephala (1%) from the Malagasy Region. The number of endemic species (15 species, 12%) is relatively low compared to the large geographical area of Oman and the broad diversity of habitats that characterizes the country.

Spatial variation in ant–tree bipartite networks is driven by a bottom‐up process

Spatial shifts in the organisation and pattern of ecological networks may be driven by species composition turnover, changes in species abundance and/or abiotic effects on species interactions. To test the above assumptions, we collected arboreal ants and recorded host tree species from five latitudinal sites in Xishuangbanna, China. We constructed bipartite networks and compared spatial variation in species composition, interactions and stability change. We also analysed the relationship between network structure metrics and network stability. Results showed that ant composition differed significantly among the five sites, primarily determined by weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) and Crematogaster ant species. Dominant tree species included Ficus (32 individuals), Hevea (14 individuals), Castanopsis (11 individuals) and Pittosporopsis (8 individuals). Ant richness was positively correlated with tree richness, suggesting that host trees support ant diversity as a fundamental environment. The ant–tree bipartite networks showed low connectance, high specificity and low niche overlap. Links per species and network node were positively correlated with network stability, whereas connectance, nestedness, specificity and niche overlap were not. Ants and trees formed a nonspecific and sparse bipartite network, and the number of nodes and links per species promoted network stability. Because plant richness was positively related to ant richness, and because arboreal ants feed predominantly on extrafloral nectaries, seeds, insects and honeydew secreted from hemipteran insects, we believe the bottom-up process plays a central role in determining ant–tree interaction networks.

Study of Species and Functional Group Composition of Ants in Joypur forest, Bankura, West Bengal, India

Study of Species and Functional Group Composition of Ants in Joypur forest, Bankura, West Bengal, India