Components Of Grains Research Articles

Feed industry: transfer of new technologies

Relevance – the industry for production of compound feed for farm animals is the main link in the structure of the AIC, located in the middle of all production and technological connections of the livestock products market. Over the past decade, quite high indicators have been achieved in feed production in the republic. The main components are the increase in consumption of grain fodder by livestock industry, increase in production volume of the main components of feed preparation, and optimization of the procurement of raw materials. The goal is to show the realities and prospects for increasing the potential of feed industry in Kazakhstan, the need for effective strategies based on intensification and innovative technology renewal. Methods – comparative, statistical, system analysis, logical generalization. Results - the authors state that enterprises that have become the main suppliers of raw materials for livestock sector have a number of economic difficulties that do not allow them to meet the growing needs of agroindustrial production and create reserves for large-scale export of combined feed and livestock products to the world market, in particular in countries of the Middle East. There is a significant dependence of feed production on cereals, since the key type of raw material source is 5 grade grain (coarse). Therefore, it is necessary to expand the area under these crops to obtain the required volumes of grain mixtures and feed. It is noted that one of the main promising areas of innovative activity remains the issue of reducing cost of operating equipment and energy costs. Conclusions - organization of highly efficient feed production segment in the country is necessary for proportional and balanced development of grain processing enterprises - main components of grain and meat product subcomplexes and the links between them. It is necessary to increase the capacity of large production enterprises to provide feed products on industrial scale, and also to apply technologies based on the use of grass flour and molasses from grains, which contain a high proportion of elements with high energy value, which can significantly increase the efficiency of raising livestock and reduce product costs.

Plasticity of wheat yield components in response to N fertilization

Nitrogen fertilization is one of the major issues of crop productions in west-Europe. Every year, large quantities of synthetic nitrogen are used to fertilize crops, such as winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), and ensure them high yielding conditions. In return, substantial amount of nitrogen ends up in the environment where it generates pollutions. The combination of strategic and tactical approaches has been suggested to improve the accuracy of nitrogen fertilization decisions and their implementation. Combining strategic and tactical approaches requires a detailed understanding of the dynamic of nitrogen use by the plant to both anticipate and adapt fertilization practices. Inspired by the concept of yield component phenotypic plasticity, this study aimed to analyze the influence of nitrogen fertilization dynamics on yield elaboration and infer strategic decision rules dedicated to wheat yield optimization in a Belgian context. The analysis, implemented from ten-year experiment, was conducted in two different steps. (1) We characterized the effect of nitrogen fertilization on yield and yield components when the crop was submitted to different agro-pedo-climatic contexts, (2) we analyzed the specific influence of nitrogen fertilization dynamic on yield elaboration, normalizing the variables of the experiment to exclude genetic and environmental influences. The study revealed that highest nitrogen fertilization did not automatically lead to the highest yields. High nitrogen fertilization contributed to increase the negative trade-offs between yield components, which limited the efficiency of nitrogen supplies. Conversely, a balanced dynamic of nitrogen supplies was essential to reach high yields while supplying effective amount of nitrogen. From this Belgian dataset, optimal nitrogen fertilization strategies supposed early nitrogen supplies split in two applications to support the initiation phases of grains per m² and another nitrogen supply at flag leaf stage to maintain components of grain per m² while still allowing grain filling. This fertilization structures, adapted to different pedoclimatic contexts would support strategic approach in crop nitrogen nutrition.

Effects of pre-anthesis low-temperature stress on the mineral components in wheat grains.

The nutritional value of wheat is important to human health. Despite minerals being essential nutrients for the human body, they are often neglected in consideration of the nutritional quality of cereal grains. Extreme low-temperature events have become more frequent due to the current environmental unpredictability, and it is yet unknown how the mineral components in grains are affected by low temperature. To provide valuable information for enhancing the nutritional quality of wheat under potential climatic conditions, we treated different cold-sensitive wheat cultivars at four low-temperature levels during the individual and combined stages of jointing and booting in controlled-environment phytotrons. In general, the contents of P, K, Ca, and Zn in the cold-sensitive cultivar (Yangmai16) and K in the cold-tolerant cultivar (Xumai30) were enhanced by low temperature. However, the accumulation of minerals in mature grains was reduced under low-temperature treatment, except for P, Ca, and Zn in Yangmai16. In addition, the mineral content and accumulation in Yangmai16 (except for Fe) were more susceptible to low temperature during the combined stages, while the mineral content and accumulation of K, Fe, and Zn in Xumai30 were more susceptible to low temperature during the booting stage. Moreover, Yangmai16 under extremely low temperatures (T3 and T4) during booting and Xumai30 under all low-temperature treatments during the combined stages had lower comprehensive evaluation values. These findings offer a crucial reference for enhancing the nutritional quality of wheat grains under climate change.

Optical dating of sediments affected by post-depositional mixing: Modelling, synthesizing and implications

One of the biggest challenges in optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating is to deal with sediments that are affected by post-depositional mixing. Equivalent dose (De) distributions of such samples are commonly analysed using the finite mixture model (FMM), which can statistically identify dose components of grains derived from sedimentary layers with different ages. The FMM has been increasingly applied in OSL dating of sediments from key geological and archaeological sites that are critical for understanding the evolution of Quaternary environment and human history. The burial age of the dated layer is commonly determined by dividing the De value of the target dose component estimated using the FMM by the total dose rate of the bulk sample. However, a systematic investigation of the reliability of this method for different post-depositional mixing situations has not been conducted. This study aims to investigate the reliability of the burial ages so obtained, using simulated mixed single-grain De distributions. We assess the performances of two different protocols—a user-specified or an automatically estimated between-grain dispersion value, σb. A number of factors influencing the reliability of the determined burial age are investigated, including the inherent dispersion in different dose populations, the proportion of grains associated with the target layer, the sample size used, the difference in dose rates and burial ages between the mixing components, and the time when mixing occurred. Published single-grain samples affected by post-depositional mixing are synthesized and their FMM results are assessed. Our results show that the reliability of FMM is controlled by the analytical and the intrinsic errors and depends critically on the proportion of grains for the target layer. The simulation and synthesized results caution against using an arbitrarily specified σb as input for the FMM. The intrinsic accuracy of the burial age is controlled by multiple factors for both synchronously and asynchronously mixed samples. The FMM ages derived from sediment samples affected by serious post-depositional mixing should be constrained by independent chronological information.

Effects of drying conditions on grain quality: a review

Post-harvest grain drying reduces water activity, which reduces the rates of chemical reactions responsible for grain deterioration and which are essential for maintaining their quality. Most studies on grain drying are performed on the laboratory scale to study the factors that determine the quality of grains on a large scale. Such factors include air temperature and flow, grain layer thickness, raw material composition, and drying system employed. This review describes the effects of drying systems and their variations on grain quality, focusing on the physicochemical properties, mycotoxin levels, and bioactive compounds and components of grains.

The productivity potential of some corn hybrids of the VIR collection for starch extraction during deep grain processing

BACKGROUND: The study of the VIR corn collection in order to search for economically valuable sources and donors is topical.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS: Studies of the biochemical components of grain during its deep processing were carried out on 27 hybrids from Germany, presented in the VIR collection. Valuable results have been obtained using the method of IR spectrometry and deep processing of grain in laboratory conditions, which make it possible to identify samples of interest for the production of native starch and its by-products.
 RESULTS: The starch yield of more than 65% solids (% DM) grain dry matter is established for the following hybrids: KHV 7262, KHV 6431, KHV 6331, KHV 5440, Karpatis, DS 21209C, DS 21215B, DS 21212A, DS 21205B, DS 22188D. The maximum starch yield, more than 70% grain DM, is set for DS 21205B hybrids. The maximum yield of the embryo was set for the hybrid KHV 4126 up to 10% DM of the grain, the yield of starch during the processing of the grain of this hybrid was 61.2% DM. The highest yield of gluten, 18% or more, was established during the processing of hybrids DS 23190B and DS 21203B. The pulp yield of more than 15% CB was obtained by processing grain DS 22182C. Based on the results obtained, the following hybrids are proposed as the starting material for corn breeding for deep grain processing: KHV 7262, KHV 5440, DS 21209C, DS 21215B, DS 21212A, DS 21205B, DS 22188D.
 CONCLUSIONS: Of greatest interest as a starting material is hybrid DS 21205B, during the processing of which starch was extracted in an amount of more than 70% grain DM.

Compound feed industry of the Republic of Kazakhstan: modernization trends

Relevance – feed industry is important in providing agricultural, industrial enterprises, farms with necessary and high-quality feed. Granular compound feeds are in great demand, which can significantly reduce their losses, consumption, eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. The basis for production of livestock products is supply of first-class fodder. Purpose – the issues of competitiveness of domestic agricultural products, achievement of which is possible with the use of new highly efficient technologies for production of combined feed, are considered. Methods – comparative and system analysis, statistical and economic, logical generalization. Results – the article notes that equipping the resource base in the required volumes is required for proportional and balanced development of farms for processing of grain products and livestock industry - main components of grain and meat product subcomplexes and the link between them. The directions of development of feed industry in Kazakhstan are shown. Emphasis was placed on the need to increase the capacity of large manufacturing enterprises to provide feed products on industrial scale, as well as manufacture of dry nutritional feed mixtures for cattle, pigs in feed mills and factories using their own raw materials, mineral and vitamin supplements. In the republic, the basis for production of high-protein haylage is fodder grain, the value and significance of which are determined from two positions: cereals are used in human nutrition and for obtaining valuable animal protein. Conclusions – the authors state that production volumes, quality and assortment of grain fodder do not meet the needs of livestock sector in concentrated feeds that are complete in terms of nutrition and affordability. New feed mills are being put into operation in the country to supply Kazakhstani agricultural producers with compound feed, without purchasing imported products.

Can wheat yield, N use efficiency and processing quality be improved simultaneously?

Increasing grain yield and quality are the two most important objectives in wheat production. In this study, grain yield, processing quality parameters, protein component concentration, nitrogen uptake and grain nitrogen source were compared under micro-sprinkler irrigation (MSI) and conventional border irrigation (CBI) treatments by field and isotope micro-plot experiments. The results showed that the MSI treatment with late and split application N increased grain yield, protein concentration, post-anthesis nitrogen accumulation amount and fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency by 5.8%, 8.6%, 42.5% and 15.8%, respectively, compared with CBI treatment. The results of isotope micro-plot test showed that the proportion of nitrogen from topdressing nitrogen in mature grains was 30.1% in MSI, which was 80.6% higher than that of CBI. What’s more, the increase in nitrogen uptake in MSI was mainly due to the increase in nitrogen uptake in chaff and grains. MSI treatment increased the concentrations of protein and its components in grains, especially the concentration of storage protein, thus resulting in the increase in wet gluten content, but did not significantly change grain processing quality parameters. In addition, MSI treatment significantly improved fertilizer nitrogen utilization efficiency by applying topdressing in different stages. In general, MSI management may be an efficient way to simultaneously increase grain yield, protein concentration and fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency and stabilize grain processing quality of winter wheat in the North China Plain.

Physiological and transcriptomic analysis reveal the regulatory mechanism underlying grain quality improvement induced by rice ratooning.

Ratoon rice cropping has been introduced for increased rice production in southern China and, as a result, has been becoming increasingly popular. However, only a few studies have addressed the regulatory mechanism underlying grain quality improvement induced by rice ratooning. In this study, parameters of rice quality, including head rice yield, chalky grain percentage, grain chalkiness degree, hardness and taste value, were shown to be much improved in the ratooning season rice as compared to its counterparts main and late cropping season rice, indicating that such an improvement was irrespective of seasonal effects. In addition, the nutritional components of grains varied greatly between main-cropping season rice, ratooning season rice and late-cropping season rice and displayed a significant correlation with rice quality. Finally, the regulatory mechanism underlying rice quality improvement revealed that gibberellin-dominated regulation and plant hormone signal transduction jointly contributed to a decrease in formation of chalky grains. This work improves our knowledge on rice quality improvement under rice ratooning, particularly on the regulatory mechanism of plant hormones. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Depth‐Profiling Determinations of Rare Earth Element Abundances and U‐Pb Ages from Zircon Crystals Using Sensitivity‐Enhanced Inductively Coupled Plasma‐Time of Flight‐Mass Spectrometry

Depth‐profiling measurements of both the abundances of rare earth elements (REEs) and U‐Pb ages from zircons were conducted using a time‐of‐flight based inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometer (ICP‐ToF‐MS) coupled with laser ablation sampling. To improve ion transmission, a dry plasma cone from Nu Instruments was applied to the ICP‐ToF‐MS system employed. The signal‐to‐noise ratios for the analytes were further improved using a multiple spot‐laser ablation (msLA) protocol. Moreover, constructing a ‘moat’ around an analysis area obviated the risk of mixing of particles released from different layers. With the technique developed here, reproducible analyses of REE abundances and U‐Pb ages for three reference material zircons (91500, Plešovice and OD‐3) were performed for sampling depths in the range 0.59–0.66 μm. The present technique was also applied to zircon samples collected from the Himalayan orogen. The combination of REE abundances and U‐Pb isotopic ratios suggested that the discordant trend in U‐Pb isotopic ratios observed in this study was mainly due to mixing among three components in grains (thin outer layer, inner rim and core). The geochemical data obtained demonstrate that the combination of the msLA technique and ICP‐ToF‐MS system is a powerful tool to decode the multiple thermal events contributing to sample formation.

Macro/microelements, nutrients and bioactive components in common and Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) grain and stone-milling fractions

The study aimed to determine variations in macro/microelements, nutrients and bioactive components in grain and stone-milled fractions of common and Tartary buckwheat cultivated over three consecutive years. Whole grain were milled to obtain several fractions: light flour, semolina, three or four bran fractions, and hulls. Dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, macro- and microelements, total antioxidant capacity, rutin and quercetin contents, and compounds with antioxidative potential were determined. Crude protein in buckwheat samples ranged from 2.9% to 35.7%, and crude fat from 0.2% to 10.1%. Bioactive compounds were significantly higher in Tartary buckwheat samples, especially for semolina and bran fractions. The multi-elemental compositions of these buckwheat species were comparable, while the differences between the milling fractions varied considerably for K, P, Mg, S, Fe and Zn. Principal component analysis for 20 parameters derived from 45 samples showed good discrimination for buckwheat whole grain, light flour and hulls for both species, for Tartary buckwheat bran and semolina, and for common buckwheat bran and semolina. The profiles of compounds with antioxidant potential were significantly different between the buckwheat species, as well as for hulls and bran fractions compared with the other fractions. In general, harvest year did not have any significant impact on any of the parameters analysed.

Identification of three gene families coordinating the conversion between fructose-6-phosphate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate in wheat

Saccharides are a direct energy source for most organisms and the primary components in grains of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L., 2n = 6x = 42, AABBDD). However, genes involved in the metabolism of primary saccharides such as glucose and fructose have not been fully characterized in wheat, which limits our understanding of how these genes influence wheat growth. In this study, genes coding ATP-dependent phosphofructokinase (PFK), fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP), and pyrophosphate-dependent fructose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase (PFP), which participate in the conversion between fructose 6-phosphate (F-6-P) and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-P2), were identified at the genome-wide level. A total of 24, 13, and 12 genes were found encoding TaPFK, TaFBP, and TaPFP, respectively. All predicted peptides of these genes exhibited conserved substrate-binding domain, suggesting they are active enzymes in vivo. Transcriptome data ranked the gene levels as follows: TacyFBP-1 > TacpFBP-1 > TaPFPα-2 ≈ TaPFPβ >> TaPFK-1 ≈ TaPFK-5 >> all remaining genes at different developmental stages of wheat. In the three tapfp-a, b, and d knockout lines, there was a decrease in the plant height, anther length, and thousand-grain mass, while the percentage of abnormal pollen increased compared to that of wild type cv. Huapei3 (HP3). During germination, tapfpβ-a exhibited a lower germination rate, shorter coleoptile and primary root length, and higher fructose content than HP3, tapfpβ-b, and tapfpβ-d lines. Expressions were ranked as follows: TaPFK-5 ≈ TaPFPα-2 >> TaPFPα-1 ≈ TaPFPβ > TacyFBP-1 ≈ TaPFK-7, 9 in HP3. All these genes were downregulated during the 24 - 96 h germinating process in three mutant lines. Collectively, main TaPFK, TaFBP, and TaPFP members cooperated during wheat growth, while TaPFPβ knockout decreased wheat vitality. Results from this study can aid more systematic studies of the physiological and molecular functions of TaPFK, TaFBP, and TaPFP.

Non-Invasive Identification of Nutrient Components in Grain.

Digital farming is a modern agricultural concept that aims to maximize the crop yield while simultaneously minimizing the environmental impact of farming. Successful implementation of digital farming requires development of sensors to detect and identify diseases and abiotic stresses in plants, as well as to probe the nutrient content of seeds and identify plant varieties. Experimental evidence of the suitability of Raman spectroscopy (RS) for confirmatory diagnostics of plant diseases was previously provided by our team and other research groups. In this study, we investigate the potential use of RS as a label-free, non-invasive and non-destructive analytical technique for the fast and accurate identification of nutrient components in the grains from 15 different rice genotypes. We demonstrate that spectroscopic analysis of intact rice seeds provides the accurate rice variety identification in ~86% of samples. These results suggest that RS can be used for fully automated, fast and accurate identification of seeds nutrient components.

Bread Wheat Quality under Limiting Environmental Conditions: I-Molecular Properties of Storage Proteins and Starch Constituents in Mature Grains

To support the introduction of local soft wheat varieties, the Lebanese state has implemented, during recent years, an improvement program to select plant material with good productivity in semi-arid conditions that can lead to national production that can, at the same time, meet quality needs expressed by Lebanese processors. In the present study, the main biochemical components of grains conventionally associated with bread-making properties (storage proteins, starch polysaccharides) were physiochemically characterized for a panel of local soft wheat varieties selected. During the two consecutive years of cultivation, the post-flowering thermal constraints significantly modified the kinetics of accumulation of the major constituents by mainly limiting the grain filling time. The level of polymerization/aggregation (i.e., gliadin/glutenin ratio, unextractable polymeric protein (UPP) amount, molecular weight average of glutenins) of prolamins was very high. The reduction in the amount of starch was accompanied by a significant change in the amylopectin/amylose ratio. Finally, the genotypes studied were characterized by significantly different distributions of starch granules; the percentage of the volume occupied by A-type and B-type starch granules varied between genotypes for the two cropping years. All these observations must be considered because of their determining role in the technological aptitude of the flours generated.

Development of physical process for quinoa fractionation and targeted separation of germ with physical, chemical and SEM studies

Dry milling process is developed, which is scalable to industrial capacity and more eco-friendly compared to wet method for separation of germ, perisperm and bran fractions from quinoa as potential functional food ingredients. Peripheral germ is the most important functional component of grain as it stores most of the protein and fat reserve. Fractionation of the grain is performed at different conditioning moisture (viz., 12, 14, 16, 18 & 20%). Medium conditioning moisture (14–16%) has shown optimum balance between yield and quality of the fractions; and has been explored further to develop a novel process specifically targeted for germ separation by making significant changes in the flow diagram of the roller milling process. This developed process enables separation of germ with recovery of 82.57% of protein, 80.04% fat and 81.20% of minerals with respect to germ extracted manually. Bran obtained by the developed novel process shows double the amount of dietary fibre compared to quinoa seed; perisperm having <1% mineral content with brightness in colour portrays purity of the fraction. Isolated fraction of quinoa germ has high content of protein, ash and fat. Separated fractions with higher nutritional value have numerous functional applications in food industry.

The application of rock phosphate increases the growth and yield of rice on acid sulphate soil of South Kalimantan, Indonesia

A swampland has considerable potential in agriculture. This land has high soil acidity level, and high iron content. Therefore, the application of ameliorant to acid sulfate soil is essential to improve the soil and make it more suitable for rice cultivation. This study aimed to know the effects of phosphorus (P) from Moroccan Rock Phosphate (MRP) and fertilization on swamp rice (Oryza sativa L.). The experiment was conducted at the experimental location of Indonesian Swampland Agricultural Research Institute (ISARI), Puntik Village, Barito Kuala District, South Kalimantan and arranged in a randomized nested design consisting of 100 kg.ha-1 TSP (Control), 750 kg.ha-1, 1,000 kg.ha-1, and 1,250 kg.ha-1 Moroccan rock phosphate with four replications in each treatment. The yield component of grain increased significantly at 3.77 ton.ha-1. The highest of grain yield was obtained in the application of 1,000 kg.ha-1 MRP. Meanwhile, significant positive correlation was observed between plant height and the number of spikelets per panicle. The application of phosphate fertilizer can increase soil pH, which affects the growth and yield of rice plants such as plant height and yield.

Wheat, Barley, and Oat Breeding for Health Benefit Components in Grain.

Cereal grains provide half of the calories consumed by humans. In addition, they contain important compounds beneficial for health. During the last years, a broad spectrum of new cereal grain-derived products for dietary purposes emerged on the global food market. Special breeding programs aimed at cultivars utilizable for these new products have been launched for both the main sources of staple foods (such as rice, wheat, and maize) and other cereal crops (oat, barley, sorghum, millet, etc.). The breeding paradigm has been switched from traditional grain quality indicators (for example, high breadmaking quality and protein content for common wheat or content of protein, lysine, and starch for barley and oat) to more specialized ones (high content of bioactive compounds, vitamins, dietary fibers, and oils, etc.). To enrich cereal grain with functional components while growing plants in contrast to the post-harvesting improvement of staple foods with natural and synthetic additives, the new breeding programs need a source of genes for the improvement of the content of health benefit components in grain. The current review aims to consider current trends and achievements in wheat, barley, and oat breeding for health-benefiting components. The sources of these valuable genes are plant genetic resources deposited in genebanks: landraces, rare crop species, or even wild relatives of cultivated plants. Traditional plant breeding approaches supplemented with marker-assisted selection and genetic editing, as well as high-throughput chemotyping techniques, are exploited to speed up the breeding for the desired genotуpes. Biochemical and genetic bases for the enrichment of the grain of modern cereal crop cultivars with micronutrients, oils, phenolics, and other compounds are discussed, and certain cases of contributions to special health-improving diets are summarized. Correlations between the content of certain bioactive compounds and the resistance to diseases or tolerance to certain abiotic stressors suggest that breeding programs aimed at raising the levels of health-benefiting components in cereal grain might at the same time match the task of developing cultivars adapted to unfavorable environmental conditions.

Перикарпы боялған күріш генотиптеріне амилоза мөлшері бойынша скрининг

Rice is one of the oldest crops. Starch and protein are among the main components of grains. In addition, it contains vitamins, minerals and fats. The criteria for high quality rice vary from country to country. For example, in the Philippines, Bangladesh and India, a preference is given to rice with a high amylose content. In Japan, Egypt and Korea, a preference is given to low-amylose varieties. All varieties are used in China, Myanmar, Nepal and Malaysia. Starch is a major contributor to the culinary and nutritional quality of rice. In cereal grains, starch consists of C6 sugar, which is polymerized into endosperm starch granules. There are two types of polymerization: straight-chain amylose and amylopectin with branched-chain sugar molecules that are linked by glycosidic bonds. The light-optical properties of the caryopsis depend on the type of starch polymerization. In caryopses that contain 20-30% amylose, the endosperm is transparent, and with waxy starches, it is cloudy. According to the composition of starch, grains are divided into glutinous and non-glutinous. However, there are many intermediate forms. One of the important indicators and a good indicator for assessing the quality of grain is the content of amylose. The culinary advantages of rice cereals (coefficient of water absorption and weld, taste and consistency of porridge) depend on the content of amylose. In Kazakhstan, targeted studies have not been carried out to determine the quantitative content of amylose in rice genotypes with a colored pericarp. Therefore, the authors undertook biochemical screening for amylose content in rice genotypes with a stained pericarp and their parental forms. The article presents results of biochemical analysis of generations F6-F7 hybrids with stained pericarp for amylose content. As a result of the study, it was revealed that among the studied rice samples there are no high amylose genotypes, and the amylose content ranges from 0 to 24.5%. In terms of amylose content, the studied rice genotypes were classified into 4 groups.

Mineral diagenetic control of expulsion efficiency in organic-rich mudrocks, Bakken Formation (Devonian-Mississippian), Williston Basin, North Dakota, U.S.A.

Organic-rich mudrocks that served as sources for the prolific unconventional system of the Bakken Formation display pronounced heterogeneity in composition and expulsion behavior. The dominant mudrocks of the Bakken Formation (tarls) contain few biogenic allochems and have a diagenetic history dominated by compaction. Mudrocks that at deposition contained relatively more siliceous biogenic debris display microquartz cement that reduced porosity and enhanced rock stiffness. Against a background of strong expulsion at the formation scale, the ratio of methane to iso-butane (C1/iC4) in gas extracted from these organic-rich mudrocks reveals a wide range of expulsion efficiency. C1/iC4 in crushed rock gas is strongly controlled by maturity, with lower maturity samples displaying a range of iso-butane content, but little methane. At higher maturity a strong negative correlation between methane and iso-butane is interpreted in terms of expulsion efficiency, with higher proportional amounts of iso-butane corresponding to greater oil expulsion. The majority of mudrocks in the Upper and Lower Bakken Formation source rocks display strong expulsion efficiency, although a minority of samples display relatively high oil retention.A key control on the degree of petroleum expulsion in the Upper and Lower members that have served as sources for the Middle Bakken reservoir is the extent of cementation by authigenic microquartz. The grain assemblages in the organic-rich mudrocks are mixed, but are mostly dominated by grains of extrabasinal derivation (tarls). At the time of deposition only a minority of the mudrocks contained a substantial component of grains of intrabasinal derivation, notably radiolarians, which reacted to form authigenic microquartz. The higher-maturity mudrocks cemented by microquartz display relatively high retention of generated hydrocarbons whereas the associated tarls show a wide range of expulsion behavior. The contrast in expulsion state displayed across Bakken Formation mudrocks suggests that compaction, where not inhibited by cementation, persists into the oil window and acts together with overpressuring as a driver of hydrocarbon expulsion. Where cemented early in the diagenetic history, mudrocks cease to compact and are able to retain more of their generated oil. These results for the Bakken Formation have implications for unconventional systems more generally. The cementation status of mudrocks may be one of the key factors for predicting expulsion efficiency and for determining the efficacy of organic-rich mudrocks as hydrocarbon sources (where compaction-dominated) versus reservoirs (where cemented early in the burial history).

Legume Crops and Biotrophic Pathogen Interactions: A Continuous Cross-Talk of a Multilayered Array of Defense Mechanisms.

Legume species are recognized for their nutritional benefits and contribution to the sustainability of agricultural systems. However, their production is threatened by biotic constraints with devastating impacts on crop yield. A deep understanding of the molecular and genetic architecture of resistance sources culminating in immunity is critical to assist new biotechnological approaches for plant protection. In this review, the current knowledge regarding the major plant immune system components of grain and forage legumes challenged with obligate airborne biotrophic fungi will be comprehensively evaluated and discussed while identifying future directions of research. To achieve this, we will address the multi-layered defense strategies deployed by legume crops at the biochemical, molecular, and physiological levels, leading to rapid pathogen recognition and carrying the necessary information to sub-cellular components, on-setting a dynamic and organized defense. Emphasis will be given to recent approaches such as the identification of critical components of host decentralized immune response negatively regulated by pathogens while targeting the loss-of-function of susceptibility genes. We conclude that advances in gene expression analysis in both host and pathogen, protocols for effectoromics pipelines, and high-throughput disease phenomics platforms are rapidly leading to a deeper understanding of the intricate host-pathogen interaction, crucial for efficient disease resistance breeding initiatives.