Competitive Female Gymnasts Research Articles

Tendon structure, clinical tests, and pain during-loading in young female competitive gymnasts

ABSTRACT To examine the relationship between Achilles-tendon (AT) and patellar-tendon (PT) structure, clinical-examination and tendon pain in young gymnasts; and, to explore the associations between these factors and age, maturation, and training-load. Two hundred and seventy-four female gymnasts (aged 12.1±1.9 yrs) were assessed for anthropometric measures, pubertal-stage, and training-load. They had clinical-tests (pain-on-palpation for AT and pain-on-palpation and Royal-London Hospital-Test for PT), were asked about tendon-pain during-loading and were assessed for tendon-structure. Gymnasts with positive clinical-tests (with and without pain during-loading) presented a significantly higher prevalence of disorganized AT and PT compared to gymnasts with negative clinical-tests (with and without pain during-loading) (p<0.05). A significant pubertyXpositive clinical-test interaction was found for disorganized PT structure, whereby a disorganized structure was more prevalent among post-pubertal gymnasts with positive clinical-tests compared to pre-pubertal participants with negative clinical-tests (F(1, 263)=9.436, p=0.002). In gymnasts with positive clinical-tests, significant correlations were found between disorganized AT and PT structures and age, and training-load (p<0.05). An increased prevalence of disorganized tendon structure (regardless of pain during-loading) was seen in participants with positive clinical-tests. This disorganized tendon-structure was found to be significantly related to increased age, post-pubertal stage, and higher training hours in gymnasts with positive clinical-tests.

Effects of proprioceptive training using BOSU® balance trainer on core strength and static balance in young competitive rhythmic gymnasts

Purpose: The study aimed to examine the effects of eight weeks of proprioceptive training using a BOSU® balance trainer on core strength and static balance in young rhythmic gymnasts. Methods: Twenty-three young competitive female rhythmic gymnasts, (age: 9.7 ± 1.9 yrs; weight; 26.1 ± 6.5 kg; height: 131.2 ± 10.9 cm; years of experience in RG: 3.5 ± 1.7) were assigned into an experimental group (EG, n = 12) and a control group (CG, n = 11). Both groups underwent a series of tests included the side bridge test, the stork stand balance test, and the rhythmic gymnastics balance test before and after the experimental intervention. All participants engaged in regular rhythmic gymnastics training throughout the intervention period with EG supplemented with BOSU® balance trainer proprioceptive training. The intervention programme consisted of six sets of exercises that focused on improving core strength and static balance. Training volume was kept consistent throughout the experiment, with each exercise performed for 30 s followed by a 45-s rest in 2 sets, 3 times a week. Results: Results showed that EG improved core strength significantly for right (P &lt; 0.001) and left (P = 0.038) sides. However, there was no significant difference found in static balance (Stork Stand Balance Test and Rhythmic Gymnastics Balance Test) between EG and CG. Conclusion: The study concluded that proprioceptive training using BOSU® balance trainer implemented for 8 weeks on young competitive rhythmic gymnasts improved core strength but not in static balance

Effects of different stretching methods on vertical jump ability and range of motion in young female artistic gymnastics athletes

Female artistic gymnastics includes multiple athletic gestures that can be performed by combining jump strength with wide degrees of joint mobility. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two different types of stretching on vertical jump height and range of motion in competitive gymnasts and to identify the most suitable stretching protocol for increasing range of motion, without negatively affecting vertical jump performance. In a crossover design, following dynamic stretching, static stretching, and control (no stretching), eight competitive female gymnasts (age: 14±2 years; BMI: 18.8±1.4 kg/m2, mean±SD) were tested on jump performance through a squat jump, a countermovement jump and an acrobatic gymnastic jump, and on range of motion by measuring the amplitude of the forward oversplit figure. One-way repeated measure ANOVA revealed significant main, very large effect of stretching condition (P<0.01). Post-hoc comparisons showed improvement of squat jump and countermovement jump after dynamic stretching with respect to static stretching and control (P<0.05). Range of motion increased significantly following static stretching with respect to dynamic stretching and control (P<0.01). Dynamic stretching is recommended in the warm-up to increase vertical jump performance, while specific static stretching should be pursued in the final phase of the training session being a specific technical work for range of motion.

Risk factors associated with low back pain in competitive female gymnasts: A meta-analytic approach

ABSTRACT The aim of this meta-analysis was to aggregate data from studies investigating the risk factors associated with low back pain (LBP) in competitive gymnasts. Four databases were searched and studies reporting demographics, anthropometrics, functional, psychosocial and gymnastics-practice variables in competitive gymnasts with and without LBP were included. For continuous data, the weighted mean difference (MD) and confidence interval (95% CI) were calculated, while odds or risk ratio (OR, RR) were calculated for dichotomous data. Meta-analysis of six cross-sectional studies involving 284 competitive female gymnasts revealed that artistic were more likely to report LBP compared to rhythmic gymnasts (RR 1.4, 95% CI 1.04–2.0, Z=2.2, p=0.03). Data pooling revealed that age (MD 1.5 years, 95% CI 0.4–2.5, p=0.005) and body weight (MD 3.5 kg, 95% CI 0.1–6.8, p=0.04) were significantly higher in gymnasts with LBP compared to those without. Subgroup-analyses confirmed these differences in artistic but not in rhythmic gymnasts. Moreover, artistic gymnasts with LBP tended to display longer gymnastics-practice history (p=0.09) compared to those without. Increased age, body weight and, to a lesser extent, longer gymnastics-practice appear to differentiate artistic gymnasts with LBP from those without; conversely, these potential risk factors seem less relevant for rhythmic gymnasts.

Changes In Body Composition And Energy Balance In Collegiate Female Gymnasts Over Multiple Competitive Seasons

The maintenance of energy status is an important dietary goal for competing athletes to properly fuel efforts, promote recovery, and prevent onset of illness or decrements in performance. Recent work in competing male athletes has reported on energy balance using body-composition derived parameters, but limited data is available highlighting changes in female athletes, and in particular female athletes who participate in physique sports. PURPOSE: To assess the changes in body composition and energy balance in female collegiate gymnasts over multiple competitive seasons. METHODS: 19 NCAA Division II collegiate female gymnasts (Mean ± SD; 18.4 ± 0.68 yr, 59.4 ± 4.5 kg, 160.9 ± 5.4 cm, 22.6 ± 2.2 % fat, 18.0±1.2 kg/m2 fat free mass index) underwent dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans at the start of each season. Data was collected on all 19 subjects over three years with nine subjects being extended to a fourth year. Energy balance (EB) was calculated using a previously validated equation (EB= 1.0(Δ FFM/Δ Time) + 9.5(Δ FM/Δ Time) using fat free mass (FFM), time (days between scans) and fat mass (FM). A factorial ANOVA with repeated measures on time was conducted for changes in FFMI and Δ EB. Individual paired samples T-Tests were conducted when significance was found. RESULTS: Significant differences (p<0.05) between EB at year 1 (26.1 ± 46.7 kcals/day) and year 2 (-20.3 ± 57.9 kcals/day). Differences were also found (p<0.05) between years 2 (-20.3 ± 57.9 kcals/day) and year 3 (48.9±59.7) among the 9 subjects whose data extended to a fourth scan. No statistical significance was found (p > 0.05) between FFMI levels between year 1 (18.0 ± 1.2 kg/m2), year 2 (18.1 ± 0.8 kg/m2), and year 3 (18.3 ± 1.3 kg/m2). CONCLUSION: Changes in energy balance were largely stable in competitive female gymnasts across three years periods of time. Additionally and in concert, FFMI levels were also found to be stable across the measurement period. While statistically significant differences were present, the practical significance of these differences is not deemed to be relevant. Additional research is needed in all female athlete population to help identify and understand what dietary changes may be needed to best promote health, performance, and recovery.

The Relationship of Shoulder and Elbow Stresses and Upper Limb Contact Order During a Round-Off Back Handspring.

Despite high injury incidence rates in gymnastics, there is a paucity of data characterizing upper extremity injury causation and biomechanical risk factors. This study investigated contact forces across multiple joints in both upper extremities during a round-off back handspring (ROBHS), a fundamental gymnastics tumbling maneuver. (1) To characterize the three-dimensional (3-D) biomechanics of the sequential, asynchronous contact of each upper extremity with the ground during a ROBHS using 3-D motion capture, and (2) to evaluate potential correlations to upper extremity injury risk. Observational cross-sectional study. Controlled laboratory environment. Fourteen competitive female gymnasts aged 10-21 years (mean age: 16.6 ± 3.1 years) (1) participating on a competitive gymnastics team; (2) capable of successfully completing a ROBHS; and (3) free of reported injury at enrollment. Not applicable. Variables evaluated include joint angle, torque, compression force, ground reaction force (GRF), time to peak GRF, and limb loading rates. Variables were analyzed at the wrist, elbow, and shoulder of both limbs at ground contact. The hypothesis that these dependent variables would differ by ROBHS upper extremity contact order was formulated retrospectively after data collection. The first contact limb experienced significantly greater extension torque at the elbow (first: 48.89 ± 18.01 Nm, second: 22.49 ± 9.19 Nm; P = .014; CI 95% [14.83, 37.97]) and faster time to peak GRF (P < .001, CI 95% [-1.79, -0.99]). The second limb of contact experienced significantly greater abduction torque at the shoulder (P = .007; CI 95% [-21.58,-8.08]) and anterior-posterior GRF at contact (P = .007; CI 95% [-1.06,-0.26]). The biomechanical differences between contact limbs during the ROBHS may lead to different injury risk. Recognition of the stresses at the elbow and shoulder for both limbs also provides new insight for rehabilitation clinicians to consider when guiding patients to return to gymnastics activity after injury.

Sport-specific musculoskeletal growth and postural control in female artistic gymnasts: a 12 month cohort study

Female gymnasts have been evidenced to experience sport-specific growth, of which broad shoulders and narrow hips are common characteristics. In addition to being a central component of handstand performance, postural control mechanisms, including whole-body and lumbo-pelvic stability, have been identified as risk factors for overuse spinal pathology. The study aimed to develop a fundamental understanding of musculoskeletal growth and postural control responses of female artistic gymnasts in order to extend longitudinal insights into overuse spinal pathology risk. Whole-body anthropometric measures were collected for 12 competitive female gymnasts (age at recruitment: nine to 15 years) at three time points across a 12 month period. Musculoskeletal growth was partially defined as the rate of bicristal-to-biacromial breadth ratio development, and informed shoulder- and pelvis-dominant growth sub-groups. Kinematic and kinetic indicators of postural control were determined for a total of 700 handstand trials. The shoulder-dominant (gymnastics-specific) growth group was found to have significantly greater biomechanical risk for general stability (p < 0.001) than the pelvis-dominant group. Significantly greater lumbo-pelvic risk was demonstrated for the pelvis-dominant group (p < 0.001). Extended idiosyncratic examination of proportional sport-specific growth measures alongside multi-faceted risk monitoring was advocated for the effective development of future overuse pathology prevention protocols.

Revisiting mediational models of sport commitment with female gymnasts

The purpose of this study was to test alternative models of sport commitment with a youth sport sample. Competitive female gymnasts (N = 792; Levels 4–10), ages 8–19 years (M = 11.68, SD = 2.33), completed measures designed to assess the determinants of commitment. Data were analysed via path analysis models in the lavaan package in R. Three separate models were fitted: (a) direct effects model, (b) a mediational model testing the indirect effects of the predictors via enjoyment, and (c) direct and indirect effects of the predictors on sport commitment. Of the models tested, the direct and indirect effects model yielded the best fit of the data (RMSE = .03 90% CI [.000, .057], TLI = .989, CFI = .997, NFI = .989; 67% of the variance in commitment explained). The model revealed that enjoyment, involvement opportunities, investments, and attractive alternatives had a direct effect on commitment. With regard to the indirect effects of the determinants on commitment via enjoyment, attractive alternatives, involvement opportunities, investments, costs, parent and best friend social constraints, and coach and teammate social support had direct effects on enjoyment, which predicted the level of gymnastics commitment. Additionally, some differences emerged in the salient predictors of commitment for high versus low level competitors. The role of enjoyment within commitment is complex depending on competitive level, and future research should consider alternative models when examining the role of social influence on sport commitment.

The acute effects of stretching with vibration on dynamic flexibility in young female gymnasts.

While stretching with vibration has been shown to improve static flexibility; the effect of stretching with vibration on dynamic flexibility is not well known. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of stretching with vibration on acute dynamic flexibility and jump height in novice and advanced competitive female gymnasts during a split jump. Female gymnast (N.=27, age: 11.5±1.7 years, Junior Olympic levels 5-10) participated in this cross-over study. Dynamic flexibility during gymnastic split jumps were video recorded and analyzed with Dartfish software. All participants completed both randomized stretching protocols with either the vibration platform turned on (VIB) (frequency of 30 Hz and 2 mm amplitude) or off (NoVIB) separated by 48 h. Participants performed 4 sets of three stretches on the vibration platform. Each stretch was held for 30 seconds with 5 seconds rest for a total of 7 minutes of stretch. Split jump flexibility decreased significantly from pre to post measurement in both VIB (-5.8±5.9°) (P<0.001) and NoVIB (-2.6±6.1°) (P=0.041) conditions (adjusted for gymnast level). This effect was greatest in lower skill level gymnasts (P=0.003), while the highest skill level gymnasts showed no significant decrease in the split jump (P=0.105). Jump height was not significantly different between conditions (P=0.892) or within groups (P=0.880). An acute session of static stretching with or without vibration immediately before performance does not alter jump height. Stretching with vibration immediately prior to gymnastics competition decreases split jump flexibility in lower level gymnasts more than upper level gymnasts.

The effects of a four week jump-training program on frontal plane projection angle in female gymnasts

ObjectivesTo investigate the effects of a four week jump training program on frontal plane projection angle (FPPA) in young female gymnasts. DesignIntervention study, consisting of a four week jump training program performed for 15 min as part of a warm-up, three days per week for four weeks. SettingGymnastics training center. ParticipantsFourteen youth female gymnasts (age: 13.5 ± 2.14 years, height: 1.54 ± 0.11 m, body mass: 46.23 ± 7.68 kg). Main outcome measuresChange in FPPA during a 30 cm drop landing and tuck back somersault. ResultsLarge and significant decreases (p < 0.001) in FPPA of 6.8° (39%) and 8.4° (37%) during the drop landing and tuck back somersault, respectively. ConclusionThe jump training program was successful in improving FPPA in female gymnasts and is advised to be implemented into the warm-ups and training programs of competitive female gymnasts to improve FPPA and therefore reduce the risk factors associated with knee injuries.

Construct validity and inter-rater reliability of the Gymnastic Functional Measurement Tool in the classification of female competitive gymnasts in Canada

ObjectivesTo determine the construct validity and the inter-rater reliability of the Gymnastic Functional Measurement Tool (GFMT) within the parameters of the Canadian classification of female competitive gymnasts. DesignValidity and Reliability study. SettingThe GFMT was administered by evaluators who had no previous knowledge of the competing level of the gymnasts. To determine the construct validity, a multiple linear regression analysis was carried out between the GFMT scores and the gymnasts’ competition level to obtain the coefficient of determination. To estimate the inter-rater reliability, gymnasts were simultaneously evaluated by two evaluators. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) analysis was carried out for the individual score of each item as well as for the total score of the GFMT. ParticipantsNinety (90) female gymnasts aged between the ages of 8 and 18 years old. Main outcomeGFMT total score and individual score of each item. ResultsThe study demonstrated an excellent relationship between the total GFMT scores and the gymnasts’ competition level (r2 = 0.97). The inter-rater reliability analysis of the GFMT total score was excellent with an ICC of 0.98. ConclusionConstruct validity and inter-rater reliability of the GFMT in the classification of female competitive gymnasts in Canada has been demonstrated.

A Comparison of Frontal Plane Projection Angle Across Landing Tasks in Female Gymnasts

The aim of this study was to compare FPPA between three landing tasks and determine the reliability of FPPA in 15 competitive female gymnasts (age 13.5 ± 2.07 years). Reliability of FPPA was highest in the drop landing task, with no learning effect present. The backaway task showed the greatest FFPA (right: 26.75 ± 9.57°; left: 19.67 ± 9.03°), which was greater than the drop landing task (right: 19.07 ± 7.42°; left: 12.18 ± 4.83°). Individuals involved in training young female gymnasts are encouraged to screen for injury risk using FPPA during the drop landing task.

Effect of Plyometric Training on Handspring Vault Performance and Functional Power in Youth Female Gymnasts.

This study aimed to determine the effect of plyometric training (PT) when added to habitual gymnastic training (HT) on handspring vault (HV) performance variables. Twenty youth female competitive gymnasts (Age: 12.5 ± 1.67 y) volunteered to participate and were randomly assigned to two independent groups. The experimental plyometric training group (PTG) undertook a six-week plyometric program, involving two additional 45 min PT sessions a week, alongside their HT, while the control group (CG) performed regular HT only. Videography was used (120 Hz) in the sagittal plane to record both groups performing three HVs for both the baseline and post-intervention trials. Furthermore, participants completed a countermovement jump test (CMJ) to assess the effect of PT on functional power. Through the use of Quintic biomechanics software, significant improvements (P < 0.05) were found for the PTG for run-up velocity, take-off velocity, hurdle to board distance, board contact time, table contact time and post-flight time and CMJ height. However, there were no significant improvements on pre-flight time, shoulder angle or hip angle on the vault for the PTG. The CG demonstrated no improvement for all HV measures. A sport-specific PT intervention improved handspring vault performance measures and functional power when added to the habitual training of youth female gymnasts. The additional two hours plyometric training seemingly improved the power generating capacity of movement-specific musculature, which consequently improved aspects of vaulting performance. Future research is required to examine the whether the improvements are as a consequence of the additional volume of sprinting and jumping activities, as a result of the specific PT method or a combination of these factors.

Injury Types and Incidence Rates in Precollegiate Female Gymnasts: A 21-Year Experience at a Single Training Facility.

Background:With childhood sports opportunities continuing to increase at an enormous rate along with participation starting at younger ages, the number of female participants in sports has increased in paramount fashion over the past few decades. A review of the current literature reveals a very small number of studies (<30) that document specific injuries suffered by competitive female gymnasts.Purpose:To retrospectively evaluate the incidence of various injuries and injury rates for different gymnast levels among young precollegiate female gymnasts over a 21-year period, from 1985 to 2005.Study Design:Descriptive epidemiological study.Methods:This institutional review board–approved study retrospectively evaluated young, precollegiate female gymnasts over a 21-year period. Gymnasts were stratified into 1 of 4 competition levels based on the number of hours spent training. In addition to the frequency of injuries and hours trained, data collected on each gymnast included the following: age at the time of injury, body part injured, laterality of the injury, and diagnosis.Results:Over the 21-year period, 3681 new injuries were evaluated by a single physician. The injury incidence (2.155 per 1000 exposure hours) was slightly lower when compared with previously reported injury rates. There were 1,452,574 total exposure hours documented from training facility records. The injury rate per 1000 exposure hours was 2.859 for elite, 2.820 for high-level, 1.667 for intermediate, and 0.687 for novice gymnasts. The lower extremity was injured more often than the upper extremity (60.9% compared with 22.6% of total injuries). This difference was statistically significant across all levels.Conclusion:The injury incidence in this study was 2.155 per 1000 exposure hours. This was slightly lower when compared with previously reported injury rates. Although those studies only lasted 3 years or less, the injury rates can be directly compared because they are reported as injuries per 1000 training hours.Clinical Relevance:With the variability in data available and limited studies reported, a conclusive analysis is needed because of the long-term effects of injury seen on gymnasts, such as early degenerative disorders, cost of injury treatment, and reduction of well-being. In our 21-year study, we found the incidence of injury was slightly lower than that shown in prior shorter studies. In addition, we were able to evaluate specific injuries seen in this population over that time period. Also, this extended study revealed the longitudinal nature of a series of injuries over a period of time that has not been seen in other studies, thus giving insight into the effects of increased gymnastics in the young, female, adolescent population, which could be potentially used in guidelines for gymnasts in the future.

Radiological changes among artistic gymnasts in Gauteng Province

Background. The skeletal immaturity of competitive female gymnasts allows for a unique physiological predisposition to injuries as a result of the spine, limbs, ankles and wrists still growing. Studies have shown that lower back (spinal) injuries account for approximately 12% of injuries in female gymnasts.Objectives. The primary objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of radiological changes in female artistic gymnasts in South Africa. A further objective was to determine whether these radiological changes were associated with symptoms and with the amount of time spent training.Methods. A sample of 40 female artistic gymnasts with a mean of age 15.2 years (range 10 - 31) was included in the study. Thirty-one were active gymnasts and nine were retired at the time of the current study. Measuring instruments included questionnaires and X-rays.Results. X-ray analysis of symptomatic versus asymptomatic gymnasts showed no significant differences. Of the 18 gymnasts training &lt;25 h/week, 13 (72%) had degenerative changes detectable by X-ray. Of the 22 gymnasts training &gt;25 h/week, 15 (68%) had degenerative changes detected by X-ray. Radiological changes were higher than those in other studies.Conclusion. The prevalence of radiological changes was higher than international norms, however there was little difference between symptomatic and asymptomatic gymnasts. Patient self-reports of symptoms had little value in diagnosing change in the lumbar spine. Training duration affected the prevalence of changes in the lumbar spine and could be related to conditioning and experience.

Radiological changes among artistic gymnasts in Gauteng Province

Background. The skeletal immaturity of competitive female gymnasts allows for a unique physiological predisposition to injuries as a result of the spine, limbs, ankles and wrists still growing. Studies have shown that lower back (spinal) injuries account for approximately 12% of injuries in female gymnasts.Objectives. The primary objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of radiological changes in female artistic gymnasts in South Africa. A further objective was to determine whether these radiological changes were associated with symptoms and with the amount of time spent training.Methods. A sample of 40 female artistic gymnasts with a mean of age 15.2 years (range 10 - 31) was included in the study. Thirty-one were active gymnasts and nine were retired at the time of the current study. Measuring instruments included questionnaires and X-rays.Results. X-ray analysis of symptomatic versus asymptomatic gymnasts showed no significant differences. Of the 18 gymnasts training &lt;25 h/week, 13 (72%) had degenerative changes detectable by X-ray. Of the 22 gymnasts training &gt;25 h/week, 15 (68%) had degenerative changes detected by X-ray. Radiological changes were higher than those in other studies.Conclusion. The prevalence of radiological changes was higher than international norms, however there was little difference between symptomatic and asymptomatic gymnasts. Patient self-reports of symptoms had little value in diagnosing change in the lumbar spine. Training duration affected the prevalence of changes in the lumbar spine and could be related to conditioning and experience.

Eating pathology in female gymnasts: Potential risk and protective factors

Although participation in sports that emphasize aestheticism, such as women's gymnastics, are associated with higher rates of eating pathology, little is known about the risk and protective factors involved in this process. We established and tested a model proposing that body surveillance and body shame are processes by which pubertal development and training may uniquely contribute to pathological eating by sampling 100 competitive female gymnasts via questionnaires. We further tested whether self-esteem moderated several model relationships. Results demonstrated that pubertal development was associated with higher levels of body surveillance, body shame and disordered eating; whereas greater time spent training was associated with lower levels of body shame and disordered eating. Finally higher self-esteem was associated with lower levels of disordered eating, less body surveillance, and less body shame. Potential risk and protective factors for the development of eating pathology in female gymnasts are discussed.

The impact of witnessing athletic injury: A qualitative examination of vicarious trauma in artistic gymnastics

We explored how athletes respond and cope after witnessing athletic injury in others participating in the same sport. Participants were eight competitive female artistic gymnasts aged 21–25 years. In the previous 3 years, participants had witnessed a serious athletic injury of another gymnast that had required hospital treatment. Participants took part in semi-structured interviews in which they were asked to discuss their experiences of witnessing injury, including descriptions of the injury's occurrence. Data were analysed using hierarchical content analysis. Following acute reactions to witnessing injury, participants reported experiencing intrusive cognitions and engaged in avoidance coping strategies. Participants reported gradually engaging in more approach coping strategies which served to lower their perceptions of vulnerability to injury. Despite the complex nature of trauma, suggestions may be made to assist applied sport psychologists working with athletes who have witnessed athletic injury.

Bone mineral accrual in 4- to 10-year-old precompetitive, recreational gymnasts: A 4-year longitudinal study

Competitive female gymnasts have greater bone mineral measures than nongymnasts. However, less is known about the effect of recreational and/or precompetitive gymnastics participation on bone development. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the differences previously reported in the skeleton of competitive female gymnasts are also demonstrated in young children with a current or past participation history in recreational or precompetitive gymnastics. One hundred and sixty-three children (30 gymnasts, 61 ex-gymnasts, and 72 nongymnasts) between 4 and 6 years of age were recruited and measured annually for 4 years (not all participants were measured at every occasion). Total-body (TB), lumbar spine (LS), and femoral neck (FN) bone mineral content (BMC) were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Multilevel random-effects models were constructed and used to predict differences in TB, LS, and FN BMC between groups while controlling for differences in body size, physical activity, and diet. Gymnasts had 3% more TB and 7% more FN BMC than children participating in other recreational sports at year 4 (p < .05). No differences were found at the LS between groups, and there were no differences between ex-gymnasts' and nongymnasts' bone parameters (p > .05). These findings suggest that recreational and precompetitive gymnastics participation is associated with greater BMC. This is important because beginner gymnastics skills are attainable by most children and do not require a high level of training. Low-level gymnastics skills can be implemented easily into school physical education programs, potentially affecting skeletal health.

Bony avulsion of the medial ulnar collateral ligament in a gymnast: A case report

The risk of injury in gymnastics is higher during periods of rapid growth and is directly related to the level of competition. 8 Zetaruk M.N. The young gymnast. Clin Sports Med. 2000; 19: 757-780 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar Gymnasts spend an estimated 29% of their season altering their training routine as a result of injury. 3 Caine D. Cochrane B. Caine C. Zemper E. An epidemiologic investigation of injuries affecting young competitive female gymnasts. Am J Sports Med. 1989; 17: 811-820 Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar , 8 Zetaruk M.N. The young gymnast. Clin Sports Med. 2000; 19: 757-780 Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar Most injuries in these athletes are the result of overuse, with upper extremity injuries occurring more frequently in male gymnasts and lower extremity injuries more often in females. 3 Caine D. Cochrane B. Caine C. Zemper E. An epidemiologic investigation of injuries affecting young competitive female gymnasts. Am J Sports Med. 1989; 17: 811-820 Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar Elbow injuries are relatively common in gymnasts due to the repetitive compressive varus and valgus stresses applied. These super-physiologic loads likely contribute to the development of osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum and medial epicondylitis or apophysitis. 5 Koh T.J. Grabiner M.D. Weiker G.G. Technique and ground reaction forces in the back handspring. Am J Sports Med. 1992; 20: 61-66 Crossref PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar Catastrophic injury, such as an acute dislocation, is frequently seen as a result of a missed move, a fall from the apparatus, or an improper dismount. Several case studies have described the extreme of these injuries, such as bilateral elbow dislocations, in a gymnast. 7 Syed A.A. O'Flanagan J. Simultaneous bilateral elbow dislocation in an international gymnast. Br J Sports Med. 1999; 33: 132-133 Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar