Compartmentalization Processes Research Articles

Cellular Griffiths-like phase

Protein compartmentalization in the frame of a liquid-liquid phase separation is a key mechanism to optimize spatiotemporal control of biological systems. Such a compartmentalization process reduces the intrinsic noise in protein concentration due to stochasticity in gene expression. Employing Flory-Huggins solution theory, Avramov/Casalini's model, and the Grüneisen parameter, we unprecedentedly propose a cellular Griffiths-like phase (CGLP), which can impact its functionality and self-organization. The here-proposed CGLP is key ranging from the understanding of primary organisms' evolution to the treatment of diseases. Our findings pave the way for an alternative Biophysics approach to investigate coacervation processes.

In-silico, evolutionary, and functional analysis of CHUP1 and its related proteins in Bienertia sinuspersici-a comparative study across C3, C4, CAM, and SCC4 model plants.

Single-cell C4 (SCC4) plants with bienertioid anatomy carry out photosynthesis in a single cell. Chloroplast movement is the underlying phenomenon, where chloroplast unusual positioning 1 (CHUP1) plays a key role. This study aimed to characterize CHUP1 and CHUP1-like proteins in an SCC4 photosynthetic plant, Bienertia sinuspersici. Also, a comparative analysis of SCC4 CHUP1 was made with C3, C4, and CAM model plants including an extant basal angiosperm, Amborella. The CHUP1 gene exists as a single copy from the basal angiosperms to SCC4 plants. Our analysis identified that Chenopodium quinoa, a recently duplicated allotetraploid, has two copies of CHUP1. In addition, the numbers of CHUP1-like and its associated proteins such as CHUP1-like_a, CHUP1-like_b, HPR, TPR, and ABP varied between the species. Hidden Markov Model analysis showed that the gene size of CHUP1-like_a and CHUP1-like_b of SCC4 species, Bienertia, and Suaeda were enlarged than other plants. Also, we identified that CHUP1-like_a and CHUP1-like_b are absent in Arabidopsis and Amborella, respectively. Motif analysis identified several conserved and variable motifs based on the orders (monocot and dicot) as well as photosynthetic pathways. For instance, CAM plants such as pineapple and cactus shared certain motifs of CHUP1-like_a irrespective of their distant phylogenetic relationship. The free ratio model showed that CHUP1 maintained purifying selection, whereas CHUP1-like_a and CHUP1-like_b have adaptive functions between SCC4 plants and quinoa. Similarly, rice and maize branches displayed functional diversification on CHUP1-like_b. Relative gene expression data showed that during the subcellular compartmentalization process of Bienertia, CHUP1 and actin-binding proteins (ABP) genes showed a similar pattern of expression. Altogether, the results of this study provide insight into the evolutionary and functional details of CHUP1 and its associated proteins in the development of the SCC4 system in comparison with other C3, C4, and CAM model plants.

Physiological and transcriptome analysis of response of soybean (Glycine max) to cadmium stress under elevated CO2 concentration

The continuous accumulation of Cd has long-lasting detrimental effects on plant growth and food safety. Although elevated CO2 concentration (EC) has been reported to reduce Cd accumulation and toxicity in plants, evidence on the functions of elevated CO2 concentration and its mechanisms in the possible alleviation of Cd toxicity in soybean are limited. Here, we used physiological and biochemical methods together with transcriptomic comparison to explore the effects of EC on Cd-stressed soybean. Under Cd stress, EC significantly increased the weight of roots and leaves, promoted the accumulations of proline, soluble sugars, and flavonoid. In addition, the enhancement of GSH activity and GST gene expressions promoted Cd detoxification. These defensive mechanisms reduced the contents of Cd2+, MDA, and H2O2 in soybean leaves. The up-regulation of genes encoding phytochelatin synthase, MTPs, NRAMP, and vacuoles protein storage might play vital roles in the transportation and compartmentalization process of Cd. The MAPK and some transcription factors such as bHLH, AP2/ERF, and WRKY showed changed expressions and might be engaged in mediation of stress response. These findings provide a boarder view on the regulatory mechanism of EC on Cd stress and provide numerous potential target genes for future engineering of Cd-tolerant cultivars in soybean breeding programs under climate changes scenarios.

Insight into the subcellular mechanism of maximizing Cd accumulation in hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. under the action of biodegradable chelating agent

Under the promotion of biodegradable chelating agents, hyperaccumulators can accumulate large amounts of heavy metals. However, in practical application, excessive accumulation of heavy metals will lead to the reduction of biomass, resulting in the reduction of heavy metal accumulation efficiency. Therefore, here we seek to investigate the dynamic process of vacuolar compartmentalization regulated by biological chelators, to provide guidance for improving the accumulation efficiency of heavy metals and alleviating the reduction of biomass. In this study, subcellular isolation was used to study the changes of enzyme activities, total cadmium (Cd), Cd2+, glutathione and reactive oxygen species (ROS) contents in protoplasts and vacuoles of leaf cells of Solanum nigrum L. The results indicate that vacuolar compartmentalization is a dynamic regulation process of continuous glutathione consumption. Under the promotion of biodegradable chelating agent N, N-bis glutamic acid (GLDA), more glutathione was induced and preferentially entered the vacuole to chelate and store Cd. Moreover, for large amounts of Cd accumulation, the insufficient supply of glutathione (GSH) preferentially maintains vacuolar homeostasis and causes redox damage outside the vacuole. These results showed that insufficient glutathione production led to the reduction of biomass. Therefore, in the practical application of GLDA, the consumption inside and outside the vacuole can be met by controlling the production of glutathione, so as to increase the efficiency of heavy metal accumulation.

A review on regulatory control of chromium stress in plants

Chromium (Cr) is a non-biodegradable heavy metal that persists long in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and enters the food chain. It is cytotoxic even at low concentrations and reduces the yield of plants. Plants also have cellular mechanisms to manage the accumulation of metal ions inside the cell to diminish the possible injury from non-essential metal ions. This paper reviews current information on plant response to Cr, a key environmental pollutant. The harmful effects together with absorption, transfer, and aggregation of Cr are discussed. The roles of the cell wall, plasma membrane, and plant microbes as the primary hindrances for Cr ingression into the cell, along with sequestration and compartmentalization process, have also been discussed. Cr-generated oxidative injury is also regarded as the main deliberated effect of Cr toxicity. It interferes with NADPH oxidases (plasma membrane) and the electron transport chains, which develop electron leakage. Some genes related to Cr stress in plants get expressed, and suppression produces protective effects by activating the signal transduction pathways. The expression of genes like BnaCnng69940D and BnaC08g49360D is increased, which is involved in protein kinase activity, signal transduction, and oxidoreductase activity. The increased mRNA levels of Cr stress response proteins, including HSP90-1 and MT-1, have been reported in the Brassica napus plant. The stressed environment around the plants may stimulate the biosynthesis of phytochelatins and metal-binding proteins, which have a protective role in plant’s growth and development.

IPSCs derived from esophageal atresia patients reveal SOX2 dysregulation at the anterior foregut stage.

A series of well-regulated cellular and molecular events result in the compartmentalization of the anterior foregut into the esophagus and trachea. Disruption of the compartmentalization process leads to esophageal atresia/tracheoesophageal fistula (EA/TEF). The cause of EA/TEF remains largely unknown. Therefore, to mimic the early development of the esophagus and trachea, we differentiated induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from EA/TEF patients, and iPSCs and embryonic stem cells from healthy individuals into mature three-dimensional esophageal organoids. CXCR4, SOX17 and GATA4 expression was similar in both patient-derived and healthy endodermal cells. The expression of the key transcription factor SOX2 was significantly lower in the patient-derived anterior foregut. We also observed an abnormal expression of NKX2.1 (or NKX2-1) in the patient-derived mature esophageal organoids. At the anterior foregut stage, RNA sequencing revealed the critical genes GSTM1 and RAB37 to be significantly lower in the patient-derived anterior foregut. We therefore hypothesize that a transient dysregulation of SOX2 and the abnormal expression of NKX2.1 in patient-derived cells could be responsible for the abnormal foregut compartmentalization.

Anisotropic droplets with uniform internal structure prepared in batch-scale by combination of vortex mixing and phase separation

Structured fluids are attractive in material science owing to their softness, variability and excellent solubility. Anisotropic emulsions, with droplets composed by structured multiple phases, are a new class of colloidal materials due to their distinct advantages of chemical encapsulation and geometry variation. High uniformity of internal droplet structure is the premise of advanced application. A fabrication approach is investigated by combination of vortex mixing and phase separation (VP), i.e. homogenous emulsion is produced by vortex mixing two immiscible oils using a volatile co-solvent and then anisotropic emulsion is obtained by phase separation induced by the spontaneous volatilizing of co-solvent. Uniformity of droplet structure in binary, ternary and even quaternary systems is systematically studied. Numerical calculations of evaporation based on three-phase diagram are performed to illustrate the kinetic process of droplet compartmentalization. In addition, the uniform droplets are applied as templates to fabricate anisotropic porous particles. Uniformity of droplet geometry is witnessed by the standard deviation reduced more than ten times. Higher order structures including two-face Janus, three-face Cerberus, and even four faces verify the university of VP strategy. Nucleation, coalescence, Ostwald ripening, and phase separation are the main procedures of droplet compartmentalization, which is controllable based the phase diagram. Anisotropic porous particles fabricated show the significant advantages of uniform morphology and flexible regulation. The strategy would propel the application of anisotropic emulsions in fields of material synthesis, drug release, and micro-reactors.

Exploring the influence mechanism of dissolved organic matter on the bioavailability and thyroid hormone disrupting effect of zinc: A case study of effluents from galvanizing plants

The effect of dissolved organic matter (DOM) on metal bioavailability and toxicity is a complex process. Effluents from galvanizing plants containing large amounts of DOM and Zn were selected to investigate the potential influence and mechanism of DOM on Zn bioavailability and its role in inducing thyroid hormone disrupting effects. Thyroid hormone disrupting effects were evaluated using a recombinant thyroid hormone receptor β gene yeast assay. The results suggest that Zn could be the main metal contributor to the toxic effects. Then, Zn-binding characteristics with different fluorescent components of DOM were analyzed using three-dimensional excitation emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy (3DEEM) and revealed that Zn was more susceptible to interactions with fulvic-like materials. Furthermore, DOM altered the cellular biouptake and compartmentalization processes of Zn by downregulating Zn transmembrane transport-related genes (ZRT1, ZRT2 and ZAP1) and upregulating detoxification-related genes (COT1 and ZRC1), thus altering thyroid toxicity. These results provide comprehensive insights into the influence and mechanism of DOM on bioavailability and thyroid toxicity of Zn and suggest that the influence is associated with complex physical, chemical and biological processes, indicating that more refined medium constraints along with subtle biological reactions should be considered when predicting the bioavailability and toxicity of Zn in environmental water samples.

Insight into the Vacuolar Compartmentalization Process and the Effect Glutathione Regulation to This Process in the Hyperaccumulator Plant Solanum nigrum L.

Vacuole compartmentalization plays an important role in the storage of heavy metals in hyperaccumulators. Is the vacuolar compartmentation a simple shielding process or a dynamic process that continuously consumes cell sap resources? How does glutathione affect the process of vacuolar compartmentalization? These unknown questions are very important to understand the mechanism of vacuole compartmentalization and can provide a guide for the design of hyperaccumulator plants by genetic engineering. Therefore, this study explored the enzyme activities, total cadmium, Cd2+, glutathione, oxidized glutathione, and reactive oxygen species contents in protoplasts and vacuoles of leaf cells in Solanum nigrum L. through subcellular separation. The results showed that vacuolar compartmentalization was a dynamic process that actively induced the related substances produced by cell sap to enter the vacuole for detoxification. When regulating the decreased glutathione content with buthionine sulfoximine, the total cadmium and combined cadmium in protoplasm decreased significantly, but the vacuole still maintained a high proportion of cadmium content and stable ROS content, which indicated that various external resources were preferentially used to maintain cadmium storage and homeostasis in vacuole rather than outside vacuole. These findings could guide the use of genetic engineering to design hyperaccumulator plants.

Nst1, Densely Associated to P-Body in the Post-Exponential Phases of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Shows an Intrinsic Potential of Producing Liquid-Like Condensates of P-Body Components in Cells.

Membrane-less biomolecular compartmentalization is a core phenomenon involved in many physiological activities that occur ubiquitously in cells. Condensates, such as promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies, stress granules, and P-bodies (PBs), have been investigated to understand the process of membrane-less cellular compartmentalization. In budding yeast, PBs dispersed in the cytoplasm of exponentially growing cells rapidly accumulate in response to various stresses such as osmotic stress, glucose deficiency, and heat stress. In addition, cells start to accumulate PBs chronically in post-exponential phases. Specific protein–protein interactions are involved in accelerating PB accumulation in each circumstance, and discovering the regulatory mechanism for each is the key to understanding cellular condensation. Here, we demonstrate that Nst1 of budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is far more densely associated with PBs in post-exponentially growing phases from the diauxic shift to the stationary phase than during glucose deprivation of exponentially growing cells, while the PB marker Dcp2 exhibits a similar degree of condensation under these conditions. Similar to Edc3, ectopic Nst1 overexpression induces self-condensation and the condensation of other PB components, such as Dcp2 and Dhh1, which exhibit liquid-like properties. Altogether, these results suggest that Nst1 has the intrinsic potential for self-condensation and the condensation of other PB components, specifically in post-exponential phases.

Visualization and quantification of cadmium accumulation, chelation and antioxidation during the process of vacuolar compartmentalization in the hyperaccumulator plant Solanum nigrum L.

Hyperaccumulators store metals in the vacuoles of leaf cells. To investigate the role of vacuolar compartmentalization in Cd accumulation, chelation and induced antioxidation, we quantified the amounts of total cadmium (Cd), Cd2+, glutathione (GSH) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in leaf cells of Solanum nigrum L. The results confirmed that vacuoles were, indeed, the main storage compartments for Cd. We then found that with increased Cd treatment concentration, the proportion of vacuolar Cd in protoplasts showed its ultimate storage capacity (82.24 %–83.40 %), and the Cd concentration stored in the protoplast maintained at a certain level (73.81–77.46 mg L−1). Besides, studies on different forms of Cd showed that the chelation state was dominant in the protoplast. The large level appearance of Cd2+ outside the vacuole revealed the limitations of vacuolar Cd2+ sequestration. The relationships between the combined forms of Cd and GSH outside the vacuole (R2 = 0.9906) showed GSH was mainly distributed to important compartments for chelation, not to vacuoles. We also demonstrated the presence of ROS-induced oxidative stress and detoxification mediated by the antioxidant GSH in vacuoles, suggesting that sequestration into vacuoles is an active process accompanied by chelation and antioxidant-mediated detoxification.

Western Blot in Immunodiagnosis of Small Ruminant Lentivirus

Background: Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) belong to genus Lentivirus, family Retroviridae. These viruses cause caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) and maedi visna (MV), infectious diseases that cause economic, production, and reproductive losses. There are no effective treatments or vaccines for these diseases. Thus, early detection via serology has great importance for control of SRLV. Therefore, the objective of this review is to demonstrate the potential of the western blot (WB) test as an immunodiagnostic test for SRLV. Review: In general, immunodiagnosis of SRLV is performed via agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which can detect antibodies in several different biological samples but is used preferably with serum and blood plasma. However, WB has demonstrated efficacy in the early diagnosis of immunoglobulins against SRLV, presenting higher sensitivity and specificity than the serological tests usually used, because this technique can detect antibodies at a dilution as much as 256 times greater than that of AGID and 32 times greater than that of ELISA. SRLV infection and consequent immunological activation result in the induction of cellular and humoral responses. Additionally, around the third week, production of antibodies directed mainly toward viral capsid proteins (p25 and p28) occurs. After the fifth week, production of immunoglobulins directed toward other viral proteins occurs. Because of the persistence of SRLV infection, serology is considered to be the most practical means to diagnosis. Each serological test has a percentage specificity and distinct sensitivity, as well as advantages and disadvantages in its applicability. It should be noted that there is no gold standard test for diagnosis of SRLV infection. Moreover, SRLV are characterized by escape mechanisms such as genetic diversity, mutagenic potential, viral intermittence, and the process of compartmentalization, which make immunodiagnosis more difficult. In addition, positive animals tend to present unstable levels of antibodies over weeks, months, and even years. In this context, WB, with early antibody detection, has been proven to be a refined and more accurate technique than other immunodiagnostic tests for SRLV. WB allows the simultaneous resolution of several immunogenic antigens present in a sample, and this feature provides it with greater reliability, differentiates it from other immunological methods, and accredits it as a test of wide applicability. Epidemiological and immunological dynamics studies often use WB in the immunodynamic diagnosis of SRLV. Serum, blood plasma, and seminal plasma are typical biological materials used in the serological diagnosis of SRLV with WB, expanding its potential as an immunodiagnosis method.Conclusion: WB is the most accurate serological technique for SRLV. It is more capable of accurate diagnosis because the genetic diversity that characterizes such lentiviruses and their various immune system escape mechanisms routinely hinder traditional diagnosis. Additionally, this test has been used widely in studies of SRLV for various purposes, but mainly in studies of epidemiological and immunological dynamics, using serum, blood plasma, or seminal plasma. However, independently of the biological sample tested, WB maintains high sensitivity and precision in immunodiagnosis, making it a refined and valid technique for SRLV control programs.

Differential compartmental processing and phosphorylation of pathogenic human tau and native mouse tau in the line 66 model of frontotemporal dementia

Synapse loss is associated with motor and cognitive decline in multiple neurodegenerative disorders, and the cellular redistribution of tau is related to synaptic impairment in tauopathies, such as Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Here, we examined the cellular distribution of tau protein species in human tau overexpressing line 66 mice, a transgenic mouse model akin to genetic variants of frontotemporal dementia. Line 66 mice express intracellular tau aggregates in multiple brain regions and exhibit sensorimotor and motor learning deficiencies. Using a series of anti-tau antibodies, we observed, histologically, that nonphosphorylated transgenic human tau is enriched in synapses, whereas phosphorylated tau accumulates predominantly in cell bodies and axons. Subcellular fractionation confirmed that human tau is highly enriched in insoluble cytosolic and synaptosomal fractions, whereas endogenous mouse tau is virtually absent from synapses. Cytosolic tau was resistant to solubilization with urea and Triton X-100, indicating the formation of larger tau aggregates. By contrast, synaptic tau was partially soluble after Triton X-100 treatment and most likely represents aggregates of smaller size. MS corroborated that synaptosomal tau is nonphosphorylated. Tau enriched in the synapse of line 66 mice, therefore, appears to be in an oligomeric and nonphosphorylated state, and one that could have a direct impact on cognitive function.

Common Origin of the Cerebellar Dual Somatotopic Areas Revealed by Tracking Embryonic Purkinje Cell Clusters with Birthdate Tagging.

One of the notable characteristics of the functional localization in the cerebellar cortex is the dual representation of the body (somatotopy) on its anterior-posterior axis. This somatotopy is conspicuous in the C1/C3 module, which is demarcated as the multiple zebrin-negative and weekly-positive stripes in dual paravermal areas in anterior and posterior lobules within the cerebellar compartments. In this report, we describe the early formation process of the cerebellar compartmentalization, particularly in the C1/C3 module. As developing PCs guide formation of the module-specific proper neuronal circuits in the cerebellum, we hypothesized that the rearrangement of embryonic Purkinje cell (PC) clusters shapes the adult cerebellar compartmentalization. By identifying PC clusters with immunostaining of marker molecules and genetical birthdate-tagging with Neurog2-CreER (G2A) mice, we clarified the three-dimensional spatial organization of the PC clusters and tracked the lineage relationships among the PC clusters from embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5) till E17.5. The number of recognized clusters increased from 9 at E14.5 to 37 at E17.5. Among E14.5 PC clusters, the c-l (central-lateral) cluster which lacked E10.5-born PCs divided into six c-l lineage clusters. They separately migrated underneath other clusters and positioned far apart mediolaterally as well as rostrocaudally by E17.5. They were eventually transformed mainly into multiple separate zebrin-negative and weakly-positive stripes, which together configured the adult C1/C3 module, in the anterior and posterior paravermal lobules. The results indicate that the spatial rearrangement of embryonic PC clusters is involved in forming the dual somatotopic areas in the adult mouse paravermal cerebellar cortex.

Behind the curtain of the compartmentalization process: Exploring how xylem vessel diameter impacts vascular pathogen resistance

A key determinant of plant resistance to vascular infections lies in the ability of the host to successfully compartmentalize invaders at the xylem level. Growing evidence supports that the structural properties of the vascular system impact host vulnerability towards vascular pathogens. The aim of this study was to provide further insight into the impact of xylem vessel diameter on compartmentalization efficiency and thus vascular pathogen movement, using the interaction between Vitis and Phaeomoniella chlamydospora as a model system. We showed experimentally that an increased number of xylem vessels above 100 μm of diameter resulted in a higher mean infection level of host tissue. This benchmark was validated within and across Vitis genotypes. Although the ability of genotypes to restore vascular cambium integrity upon infection was highly variable, this trait did not correlate with their ability to impede pathogen movement at the xylem level. The distribution of infection severity of cuttings across the range of genotype's susceptibility suggests that a risk-based mechanism is involved. We used this experimental data to calibrate a mechanistic stochastic model of the pathogen spread and we provide evidence that the efficiency of the compartmentalization process within a given xylem vessel is a function of its diameter.

Genetic Mouse Models and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for Studying Tracheal-Esophageal Separation and Esophageal Development.

Esophagus and trachea arise from a common origin, the anterior foregut tube. The compartmentalization process of the foregut into the esophagus and trachea is still poorly understood. Esophageal atresia/tracheoesophageal fistula (EA/TEF) is one of the most common gastrointestinal congenital defects with an incidence rate of 1 in 2,500 births. EA/TEF is linked to the disruption of the compartmentalization process of the foregut tube. In EA/TEF patients, other organ anomalies and disorders have also been reported. Over the last two decades, animal models have shown the involvement of multiple signaling pathways and transcription factors in the development of the esophagus and trachea. Use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to understand organogenesis has been a valuable tool for mimicking gastrointestinal and respiratory organs. This review focuses on the signaling mechanisms involved in esophageal development and the use of iPSCs to model and understand it.

A chromosome folding intermediate at the condensin-to-cohesin transition during telophase.

Chromosome folding is modulated as cells progress through the cell cycle. During mitosis, condensins fold chromosomes into helical loop arrays. In interphase, the cohesin complex generates loops and topologically associating domains (TADs), while a separate process of compartmentalization drives segregation of active and inactive chromatin. We used synchronized cell cultures to determine how the mitotic chromosome conformation transforms into the interphase state. Using Hi-C, chromatin binding assays, and immunofluorescence we show that by telophase condensin-mediated loops are lost and a transient folding intermediate devoid of most loops forms. By cytokinesis, cohesin-mediated CTCF-CTCF loops and positions of TADs emerge. Compartment boundaries are also established early, but long-range compartmentalization is a slow process and proceeds for hours after cells enter G1. Our results reveal the kinetics and order of events by which the interphase chromosome state is formed and identify telophase as a critical transition between condensin and cohesin driven chromosome folding.

Organelle Formation in Bacteria and Archaea.

Uncovering the mechanisms that underlie the biogenesis and maintenance of eukaryotic organelles is a vibrant and essential area of biological research. In comparison, little attention has been paid to the process of compartmentalization in bacteria and archaea. This lack of attention is in part due to the common misconception that organelles are a unique evolutionary invention of the "complex" eukaryotic cell and are absent from the "primitive" bacterial and archaeal cells. Comparisons across the tree of life are further complicated by the nebulous criteria used to designate subcellular structures as organelles. Here, with the aid of a unified definition of a membrane-bounded organelle, we present some of the recent findings in the study of lipid-bounded organelles in bacteria and archaea.

Compartmentalization process in eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) documented using a native fungal pathogen

Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) is an historically, ecologically, and economically significant tree species throughout New England, USA. Reports of tree damage are being associated with the native, canker-forming fungal disease Caliciopsis canker, thought to be caused by the pathogen Caliciopsis pinea Peck. When infected with this pathogen, eastern white pine trees begin a compartmentalization process that limits fungal infection and spread in the xylem. Successful compartmentalization of C. pinea and closure of associated cankers likely allows the tree to maintain health and vigor, while unsuccessful compartmentalization likely results in declining tree health and possible tree mortality. This study used tree-ring and image analysis software to quantify the compartmentalization and eventual closure process in eastern white pine trees, in response to this pathogen. The size of 357 individual Caliciopsis cankers was measured, the loss of functional sapwood resulting from these cankers was quantified, and the year of canker formation and successful closure was recorded. Cankers were classified as successfully closed if the compartmentalization process clearly delimited the necrosis of a canker and new sapwood formed to the exterior of the necrotic tissue. Our results indicate that eastern white pine growing in stands after silvicultural thinning have fewer and smaller cankers. Of the 357 cankers measured, the 147 in thinned stands were shorter, narrower, and closed faster than those in unthinned stands. However, regardless of size or extent of cankers, functional sapwood was consistently reduced in trees with more Caliciopsis cankers, indicating trees in declining health and vigor have reduced ability to compartmentalize. These results improve our understanding of how eastern white pine compartmentalizes Caliciopsis canker infections, which will provide justification for improved management practices to reduce susceptibility to this pathogen. Further, these results broaden the overall knowledge of the compartmentalization process in softwoods and provide a resource for future studies on the compartmentalization of specific pathogens.

Health Implications Associated with Aspartame Consumption: A Substantial Review.

Aspartame, an artificial sweetening agent belongs to dipeptide chemical category with a very strong sweetening potential. Although research findings in humans and non-human primates have demonstrated numerous negative effects of aspartame (biochemical, histological, neurological, behavioral, genetic etc)., the status of aspartame is still debatable. Present manuscript is a critical review of the substantial research findings related to aspartame intake on different research models. Purpose of this review was to spread the awareness about adverse effect of aspartame intake to outline the occurrence of health issues among the population. The process of uptake, storage, compartmentalization and distribution of aspartame within the body is associated with metabolic disorders and various clinical conditions. Available research literature indicates that higher amount of aspartame ingestion should be monitored carefully to avoid health implication within society.