Community-led Initiatives Research Articles

Skill Requirements for Planning for Adopting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at Panchayat Level in Coimbatore District

Objectives: The primary objective of this study is to integrate Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into Coimbatore District Panchayat planning to promote long-term environmental, social, and economic well-being. The research aims to address the challenges faced by the Panchayats, such as water conservation, land management, and community connection, by proposing an innovative approach to sustainable development. Methods: The study introduces the Innovative Sustainable Community Hamlet Empowered Watershed Approach (ISCH-WA) as a solution to address the challenges of rural resource management. This method emphasizes sustainable hamlets with a focus on water conservation, land management, and community resilience. ISCH-WA integrates modern and traditional practices, encourages community-led initiatives, and emphasizes participatory governance. Its impacts are simulated to evaluate its effectiveness in meeting SDGs and empowering rural communities. Results: The ISCH-WA method demonstrated significant potential to improve water resource management, sustainable farming, and land conservation. The approach proved effective in fostering self-sufficient and sustainable communities, highlighting its adaptability and scalability to other regions with similar challenges. Simulation results showed that ISCH-WA could seamlessly integrate SDGs into Panchayat planning, strengthening rural development efforts. Conclusion: The ISCH-WA method offers a transformative pathway for integrating SDGs into Coimbatore District Panchayat planning. By promoting education, participatory governance, and sustainable practices, this approach addresses key challenges in water conservation, land management, and community connection. The study concludes that ISCH-WA has the potential for widespread application, serving as a model for empowering rural communities and ensuring sustainable development.

The Sacred <i>Veranus niloticus</i> in Orogun Community, Delta State, Nigeria

This study investigates the cultural significance of the Nile Monitor Lizard (<i>Veranus niloticus</i>) in Orogun community, Delta State, Nigeria. A mixed-methods approach was employed, using questionnaires and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) to gather data. The questionnaire were administered to 200 adults from the total population of the people in the community. Chi-square tests were used for statistical analysis to determine significant associations. The results show that the presence of the Nile Monitor Lizard in Orogun community is not significant (χ2 = 2.418, p > 0.05) based on questionnaire responses. However, observations and KIIs confirmed the species' presence and cultural importance. The abundance of the Nile Monitor Lizard was significant (χ2 = 6.520, p < 0.05), with 60% of respondents affirming its presence. The species holds cultural significance (χ2 = 7.370, p < 0.05), with the community revering it as a deity. Interaction with the lizard is predominantly reverential (χ2 = 0.421, p > 0.05), with minimal disturbance. Conservation efforts are lacking (χ2 = 6.520, p < 0.05), with more respondents indicating a lack of support. Contrary to expectations, the Nile Monitor Lizard is not commonly used as a source of food and medicine (χ2 = 25.240, p < 0.001). The study highlights the importance of cultural conservation and traditional belief systems in protecting umbrella species like the Nile Monitor Lizard. The findings contribute to the understanding of human-reptile interactions and inform conservation strategies that respect cultural significance. Some of the recommendations made includes: Integrate cultural conservation into biodiversity protection efforts, promote education and awareness on the importance of conservation, support community-led conservation initiatives, investigate the impact of cultural beliefs on species conservation.

Integrating Circular Economy Practices for Sustainable Maritime Tourism Development in Bone Regency, Indonesia

This study analyzes the application of circular economy principles in the development of marine tourism in Bone Regency, Indonesia, using a qualitative case study approach involving local government representatives, community members, and tourists. Data was collected through in-depth interviews and field observations to understand the integration of circular economy practices, including waste management, resource reuse, and local community empowerment. Findings highlight both opportunities and challenges in implementing sustainable tourism, such as limited funding and infrastructure. However, effective practices, such as community-led recycling initiatives and government support in waste treatment, underscore the potential for circular economy models to enhance environmental sustainability and local economic benefits. The study concludes that a circular economy framework, supported by multi-stakeholder collaboration, can provide a path toward sustainable marine tourism, offering insights for policymakers and researchers aiming to balance environmental and economic goals in tourism development.

Recognising and responding to the community needs of gay and bisexual men around mpox.

In May 2022, a global surge in mpox cases, typically endemic to Western and Central Africa, particularly affected gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM). This study examines gbMSM communities' experiences and perceptions around Ireland's public health response to the outbreak. A cross-sectional mixed-methods online survey was conducted. Qualitative data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis informed by critical realism. A total of 163 gay and bisexual men took part in the survey. Participants accessed information from diverse sources, reporting varying levels of trustworthiness. Overall, participants were well-informed. Four themes were developed from the qualitative data: (1) Perceptions of the mpox response: divergence in urgency, priority, and care; (2) The mpox outbreak as a sign of otherness for gbMSM; (3) The potential for othering through mpox prevention practices; and (4) mpox, memory and fear. While community-led initiatives were effective, significant challenges included stigmatisation, discrimination, and mistrust towards public health institutions, influenced by institutionalised homophobia. The study underscores the need for inclusive, culturally sensitive, and transparent public health strategies. The mpox outbreak highlights the importance of robust community collaboration in public health interventions. Future strategies must ensure equitable access to information, vaccination, and care, and address broader structural inequalities to foster trust and engagement within affected communities.

Hands Together

Urbanisation practices in the Global South typically push the urban poor to the margins, making way for built infrastructure. In India, this involves relocating informal settlements to Rehabilitation and Resettlement (R&R) colonies, which often suffer from poor design and unjust resettlement processes (Burte and Kamath, 2023). These ‘formal’ habitat solutions have paradoxically been shown to compromise liveability, and engender worsening physical and mental health, particularly amongst children and young people (Doctors For You, 2018; Parmar et al., 2022; YUVA, 2019). A notable example is the Lallubhai Compound in the M-East ward, Mumbai, an R&R colony where heat islands are experienced due to poor design and ventilation (YUVA, 2023).In this context, public spaces are important for respite, coping and recovery. The designated public spaces within Lallubhai Compound were concretised; however, this led to waterlogging, with use ranging from informal waste disposal to addas (hindi slang for common gathering points) for drugs and alcohol. This paper discusses how a non-profit, Youth for Unity and Voluntary Action (YUVA), collaborated on reclaiming an abandoned public space in Lallubhai Compound through a climate justice lens. The approach adopted cut across existing power imbalances, and included the municipality, youth and children’s collectives, women’s groups, experts and donors, resulting in a nature-based solution that firmly intersects with community placemaking.Children and young people worked with adults to spread awareness, co-design the public space and adopted scientific greening to successfully create a safe, green haven, enabling social cohesion amongst residents. The community-led initiative demonstrates a nature-based micro transformation toward climate-just adaptations in urban poor communities that can be upscaled. Amid growing scholarship on sustainable adaptations in informal settlements and with the urban poor, this paper frames possibilities for overcoming social and climate vulnerabilities (Garschagen et al., 2024) while offering pathways for systemic change toward climate-just cities.

“Human Rights And Social Justice In India: Challenges, Progress, And Pathways To Equity”

Human rights and social justice are foundational concepts for a just and equitable society, ensuring that all individuals receive fair treatment, dignity, and equality. In India, the principles of human rights and social justice are central to addressing widespread socio-economic inequalities, cultural diversity, and the challenges posed by a complex legal and social landscape. This article explores the evolution, implementation, and ongoing struggles of these concepts within the Indian context. It delves into key challenges such as poverty, caste discrimination, gender inequality, and access to resources, which continue to hinder the realization of equitable rights for all citizens. By examining legislative measures, policy reforms, and community-led initiatives, the article highlights India’s progress toward inclusive development while acknowledging persistent gaps. Through a comparative and analytical approach, the study proposes pathways for achieving greater equity and recommends actionable strategies for strengthening India’s commitment to human rights and social justice

Interventions to ensure access to and continuity of HIV care for international migrants: an evidence synthesis.

International migrants, especially those belonging to key populations, face a considerable HIV burden. However, continuity of HIV care for this group is often challenged along the migration route. We assess the available evidence on the existing interventions that aim to strengthen community and health systems to ensure the continuity of HIV care for international migrants. We did a systematic search of PubMed for publications from 1989 until 2023 focused on different stages of the HIV care continuum regardless of the geographical region. The literature was reviewed with a thematic approach. Globally, legal regulations can restrict access to HIV care and fuel fear of deportation among undocumented migrants. The intersection of HIV-related and migration-related stigma creates further challenges for uninterrupted access to HIV care along the migration route, with negative clinical and public health consequences. Different potential interventions were identified including: provision of HIV care regardless of migration status; utilisation of mobile health, mobile units, and community-led initiatives to bring HIV care to migrants; and utilisation of participatory and co-creation methods to develop tailored and sustainable HIV-related interventions with migrant communities. Improving access to the continuity of care for migrants requires a shift towards intersectional policies rooted in co-creation approaches to address the underlying multiple and mutually reinforcing inequalities.

Decolonizing Academic Funding: An Evaluation of an Indigenous Collaborative Funding Initiative

In 2020 an innovative Indigenous community-led internal funding initiative was undertaken at a major university in Canada, followed in 2022 by a qualitative study of its inaugural round. This funding initiative is unique in that each research project was first identified by an Indigenous community/organization through a Canada-wide outreach process. The outreach process involved reaching out to over 700 Indigenous communities and organizations, via email or telephone, to ask if they would be interested in participating in a funded research project they identified as important and beneficial. The role of the university academic research partners was that of mentor rather than principal investigator for each project. Nine community-led research projects were funded and are currently underway. In this paper the authors outline the process of developing the initiative, its components, and findings from the study. Successes and challenges of the funding model are identified followed by a discussion of emergent themes. One of the key themes that emerged is that although there are aspects of this initiative that met its intended goals, it highlights a barrier in meeting one of the objectives, contributing to Indigenous research governance and self-determination.

Transnational networks of energy communities as counterpower in the European Union renewable energy transition framework

Abstract This article explores the communicative process by which transnational networks of energy communities (ECs) in Europe build counterpower vis-a-vis the European Union (EU) institutional framework, with the purpose of effectively contributing to the shaping and management of the EU policy and regulatory framework for renewable energy transition. Such a process consists in the identification of obstacles to effective participation, the facilitation of access to information on EU regulation and policy frameworks, and the production of technical knowledge that reframes how renewable energy transition is understood as a field of political intervention. The impact of EC networks, and other networks of related community-led initiatives, on the EU energy policy framework is still relatively small when compared to centralized, large-scale providers of energy. It is constrained by how differently EU regulatory and policy packages address ‘techno-energetic systems’ in energy transition, as well as disparities in the transposition of EU legislation by Member States. Still, EC networks are building counterpower by facilitating bottom-up information and skill sharing, focusing on facilitating access to information on EU regulation and policy frameworks, as well as producing knowledge that frames the obstacles to effective participation of ECs in policymaking. It expands the understanding of renewable energy transition as a field of policy intervention beyond merely instrumental logic, centred on regulation and policy support to technological innovation, by mainstreaming a substantive logic based on a comprehensive socioecological framing that embeds energy transition in a multidimensional understanding of territorial development and governance.

Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Effective Butterfly Conservation: Evidence from Community Engagement in the Ebo Forest Reserve, Littoral Region, Cameroon

Aim: This study investigates the role of indigenous knowledge in butterfly conservation within the Ebo Forest Reserve, Littoral Region, Cameroon. Pollinators, particularly butterflies, are critical for ecosystem health, yet they face significant declines due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change. Methods: Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, local communities in Iboti and Lognanga were engaged to assess their knowledge, perceptions, and contributions to butterfly conservation. The research was conducted in communities adjacent to the Ebo Forest Reserve, Cameroon, between January and July 2024. The majority of the respondents (59%) were from the Iboti community, while 41% were from the Lognanga community. The survey included questions about ecological significance, perceived threats, and cultural associations related to butterflies. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to evaluate the relationships between demographic factors and attitudes toward butterflies. Results: The study found that while community members possess a general awareness of butterfly presence, specific ecological knowledge, such as dietary preferences, is limited. A majority (68%) frequently observe butterflies, and 83% have noted recent population changes, with most perceiving stability in butterfly numbers. Despite high interest in conservation initiatives (81.9%), significant barriers exist, including limited resources and lack of awareness about conservation efforts. Conclusion: Local ecological knowledge should be integrated into conservation strategies, with emphasize on community-led initiatives to enhance butterfly conservation in the Ebo Forest Reserve. Recommendation: To enhance butterfly conservation efforts in the Ebo Forest Reserve, it is crucial to develop and implement community-led educational programs that focus on indigenous knowledge and ecological practices.

Insights From Community Organizations Collaborating With Government and Academia to Foster Health Literacy.

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted ethnic minority and other underserved communities, prompting the federal government to fund community-led health literacy initiatives. This evaluation shares challenges and lessons learned, and identifies best practices from community-based organizations (CBOs) partnering with academia and local government to support health literacy programming. In 2023, 20 representatives from 12 CBOs in Southern California responded to an interviewer-administered survey, including open-ended questions about lessons learned. We analyze text data to identify key themes. CBOs expressed a need for additional financial resources and technical assistance, including grantsmanship training, access to in-language resources, support to build and use in-house evaluation systems, and greater university oversight for student collaborators. Respondents highlighted the importance of community engagement efforts to build trust and enhance the uptake of programming. They also stressed the need for specialized training of community health workers engaged in health programs and the utilization of population sub-group data to inform policy and funding development to better serve communities' needs. CBOs are eager to partner with government and academia and acknowledge the need for targeted support and resources that can be facilitated through multisectoral partnerships. We offer recommendations and actionable strategies for funders and academia to create and improve equitable partnerships with CBOs. Partnerships that address the needs and systemic barriers experienced by ethnic minority communities will support local public health goals while fostering resilience and health equity.

Framing the future: Ensuring vulnerable island communities are engaged.

Statements such as the Bridgetown Declaration1 serve as a wake-up call for action to address the significant mental health needs in small island developing states. Overarching frameworks and action plans have been developed to support nations to promote mental health and build resilience for their populations in the region, and while these frameworks and action plans provide direction, translating them into grassroots change can be a challenge. At the Creating Futures 23 conference, delegates from the Oceania region were invited to participate in a plenary workshop entitled Framing the Future. Three questions were posed for workshop participants to respond to in relation to their perceived priorities, opportunities and innovations to support mental health in their local communities. This paper provides a summary of the workshop participants' responses. Community-led innovations, with programs tailored for small island communities, were seen as grassroots solutions in the Oceania region. Engagement with small island communities by policy makers and leaders was considered essential for effective, sustainable and community-led mental health initiatives to realise the objectives of high-level, overarching frameworks and action plans.

‘Don’t call us vulnerable!’: Rethinking flood vulnerability and community-led governance

ABSTRACT Traditional views on flood vulnerability often present a simplistic government-community relationship, portraying communities as passive recipients of aid. This perspective overlooks the dynamic agency of urban residents in shaping their own governance structures. Recent research challenges this binary thinking by revealing how communities actively manage flood risks. However, the intricate interplay between government absence and community-led actions, and their role in everyday governance, remains underexplored. Drawing on scholarship in flood vulnerability and community-led governance, this paper examines the experiences and management strategies of flood-prone residents in Dansoman, Accra, using interviews, focus groups, and “follow-along participant observation.” Three key themes emerged: “anticipate and navigate,” “collaborate and compensate for,” and “rupture and replace.” These themes illustrate how residents acquiesce to, reconfigure, or challenge government roles in flood management, establishing self-governance through community-led initiatives. These efforts often legitimize and strengthen community resilience, sometimes even usurping and replacing state authority. The findings underscore the need to recognize community agency in managing flood risks and compensating for insufficient government support through solidarity and self-help. Policymakers can enhance flood management by incorporating these community-driven insights, fostering more effective, inclusive, and sustainable strategies that reflect the fluid, evolving relationships between government and communities.

Fostering collective action for adolescent well-being: citizen science in a Colombian semi-rural area.

We present findings from the Our Voice in Barú project, examining adolescent engagement in citizen science to address environmental and social factors affecting well-being in a semi-rural Afro-descendant community in Latin America. The project aimed to identify barriers and enablers of well-being, informing adolescent-led actions for sustainable environmental changes relevant to adolescent health. Utilizing the Our Voice citizen science method, which involved technology-enabled walks, participatory cartography workshops and community meetings, we engaged adolescents and other community members. Complex systems framework was employed to analyze results and assess the promotion of collective action and local change. Local enablers of well-being included availability of quality sports and recreational venues as safe spaces, educational settings and cultural aspects, fostering safety, community pride, and personal growth. Conversely, barriers included environmental contamination, deteriorated sports venues and drug addiction, indicating the community's limited access to services and exposure to harmful substances. Adolescent citizen scientists, in partnership with the research team and relevant community decision-makers, successfully achieved changes aimed at identified barriers, including infrastructural enhancements like the repair of pumps to remove stagnant water, improvements in the quality and safety of recreational venues, and the implementation of community-led initiatives to address substance abuse and promote healthier behaviors. The Our Voice in Barú project empowered adolescents to advocate for change and promoted collective action to tackle barriers identified as significant to their well-being.

Evaluating Parental Knowledge and Behaviors Regarding Developmental Toxicants in Jazan, Saudi Arabia Using the Prevention of Toxic Chemicals in the Environment for Children Tool (PRoTECT).

This study evaluated the level of knowledge among parents in Jazan, Saudi Arabia, regarding substances that can harm child development. The Prevention of Toxic Chemicals in the Environment for Children Tool (PRoTECT) was used for this assessment. A cross-sectional survey using a multi-stage cluster random sampling approach was undertaken among 424 parents who were enlisted from eight primary healthcare centers (PHCCs). The PRoTECT score's median value was 72 out of 90, suggesting a generally high level of awareness. The study found that individuals with higher education, particularly those with postgraduate degrees, had greater awareness of protecting their children's health. Interestingly, unemployed individuals and those residing in mountainous areas also demonstrated higher awareness, possibly due to having more time to focus on their children's health and well-being. Most participants (68.2%) acknowledged the correlation between exposure to toxic chemicals during pregnancy and early childhood, and the subsequent development of neurodevelopmental disorders. The study found a solid foundation of knowledge, with 85.1% of participants interested in learning more about reducing children's exposure, but it also stressed the need for specific actions to turn awareness into prevention. These findings would help policymakers develop effective strategies, such as targeted educational campaigns, collaboration with healthcare providers, utilization of media channels, and encouragement of community-led initiatives, to reduce children's exposure to developmental toxicants in line with national and global environmental health initiatives. Future research should focus on longitudinal consciousness and behavior evaluations and regional environmental contaminants.

Community-led Initiatives for Water Resource Management in Sumenep Regency, Indonesia

Water scarcity is a global issue affecting human health, well-being, and the environment. Community participation is vital to managing water resources, particularly in addressing water scarcity. In Indonesia, East Java is one of the provinces that frequently experiences water shortages. This research explores how local communities manage water resources and utilize local knowledge to address the vulnerability to clean water crises in Desa Parsanga, Sumenep, and East Java. This study employed a qualitative approach using interviews, observations, and document analysis as data collection methods. The research findings revealed that the local community's initiative is demonstrated through their participation in the construction of drilled wells. This participation is facilitated through an organization formed by the local community in Desa Parsanga called the Association of Drinking Water Users (HIPPAM). HIPPAM constructed five drilled wells that supply clean water to approximately 500 households. This initiative demonstrates that the local communityplays a strategic role in water resource management and can promote sustainable practices. This research provides insights into the potential of communities and local knowledge in addressing global water issues.

Environmental Health Assessment by Local Environmental Justice Experts for Evidence-based Decision-making in an Agricultural Community of Northern California.

Environmental justice research driven by academics and policymakers often overlooks the valuable insights and leadership of the communities most impacted by environmental hazards. When institution-led research approaches are employed, inadequate community ownership and limited institutional accountability hinder the effectiveness of environmental public health interventions. In contrast, a community-owned and -managed approach to environmental justice research can guide community members in developing evidence-based interventions. This paper outlines a community-led environmental health assessment survey (sample= 100) and resulting community actions over six years (2017 to 2023) in a Northern California farmworker community with a perceived high prevalence of cancer and exposure to environmental hazards in households, neighborhoods, and job sites. Local resident experts in Knights Landing, CA, documented community risk factors and exposures in collaboration with interdisciplinary undergraduate and graduate student-researchers. The survey instrument focused on environmental hazards identified by local resident experts including vehicular and agricultural pollution, occupational pesticide contact, and sun exposure. Survey findings highlighted the need for targeted interventions to reduce environmental health risks, such as academic outreach programs, county investments in public services, and community-led mutual aid initiatives. Despite academic reservations about our non-random sampling method and data collection by local resident experts, our project sparked substantial actions and investments with minimal personnel and financial resources. Local leaders working with student-researchers developed more effective environmental public health interventions through a community-owned and -managed approach that went beyond the efforts of local regulatory and research institutions.

Exploration of barriers and enablers to diabetes care for Aboriginal people on rural Ngarrindjeri Country.

Addressing the disproportionate burden of type 2 diabetes prevalence in Aboriginal communities is critical. Current literature on diabetes care for Aboriginal people is primarily focused on remote demographics and overwhelmingly dominated by Western biomedical models and deficit paradigms. This qualitative research project adopted a strengths-based approach to explore the barriers and enablers to diabetes care for Aboriginal people on Ngarrindjeri Country in rural South Australia. Knowledge Interface methodology guided the research as Aboriginal and Western research methods were drawn upon. Data collection occurred using three yarning sessions held on Ngarrindjeri Country. Yarns were transcribed and deidentified before a qualitative thematic analysis was conducted, guided by Dadirri and a constructivist approach to grounded theory. A total of 15 participants attended the yarns. Major barriers identified by participants were underscored by the ongoing impacts of colonisation. This was combated by a current of survival as participants identified enablers to diabetes care, namely a history of healthy community, working at the knowledge interface, motivators for action, and an abundance of community skills and leadership. Despite the raft of barriers detailed by participants throughout the diabetes care journey, Aboriginal people on Ngarrindjeri Country were found to be uniquely positioned to address diabetes prevalence and management. SO WHAT?: Health promotion efforts with Aboriginal people on Ngarrindjeri Country must acknowledge the sustained impacts of colonisation, while building on the abundance of community enablers, skills and strengths. Opportunities present to do so by adopting holistic, community-led initiatives that shift away from the dominant biomedical approach to diabetes care.

Cultivating Sustainable Futures: Community-Led Farming Initiatives in Malaysia by APPGM-SDG

Malaysia grapples with pressing food security challenges, marked by uneven resource access, fluctuating agricultural yields, and vulnerability to external factors. Recognizing the urgency of these issues, APPGM-SDG has directed its efforts towards fostering both food security and food safety. With 198 ongoing projects this year and 53 successfully completed projects in the previous year, this journal article explores APPGM-SDG’s initiatives in localizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Malaysia, with a specific focus on community farming projects. The article aims to offer a holistic overview of these projects, delving into their multifaceted impacts and thoroughly examining their farming practices, socio-economic and community dimensions. The methodology involves the promotion of the food security initiative through grant allocation and selection processes for identifying and supporting solution providers. Additionally, insights from the database of the 198 ongoing projects, coupled with two case studies from completed projects, highlight the scale and reach of APPGM-SDG’s endeavors, providing both quantitative and qualitative insights into the tangible outcomes and positive impacts realized within the grassroots communities.

Bridging Global Protocols and Local Wisdom: Innovating Refugee Assistance Through a Harmonized Protection Model

This paper examines the critical need to integrate the Global Protection Cluster (GPC) approach with local knowledge to improve the effectiveness of refugee aid programs. It analyses the foundational principles of the GPC method in conjunction with the valuable insights provided by indigenous knowledge systems, proposing a comprehensive model to align global strategies with local realities. The study highlights the multifaceted advantages of this integrated approach through an extensive literature review and illustrative case studies from various contexts, including Afghanistan, Jordan, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Indonesia. Particular emphasis is placed on the Rohingya refugee situation in Aceh, which serves as a pivotal case study demonstrating the transformative potential of incorporating local wisdom into program design. The paper advocates for a participatory model that prioritizes the active involvement of displaced communities in decision-making processes, ensuring that aid programs are culturally competent and responsive to refugees' specific needs. Key recommendations are provided for a wide range of stakeholders—policymakers, practitioners, organizations, and donors—emphasizing the importance of collaborative partnerships, adaptive program design, and community-led initiatives. The findings suggest that by embracing local knowledge and fostering inclusive participation, refugee aid programs can achieve greater sustainability and effectiveness, ultimately contributing to more resilient and empowered displaced populations.