Wetland Communities Research Articles

Plant communities of high-Andean bofedal wetlands across a trans-Andean transect in southern Peru

Aims: Ecosystems of the Tropical Andes include plant communities above 4,000 m in elevation, associated with wetlands known as bofedales. To enhance our understanding of them, we surveyed bofedal plant communities in the Peruvian Andes. Questions: Which are the most common bofedal plant communities, and what are their main characteristics? Study area: An east-to-west 68 km megatransect in Ayacucho and Huancavelica departments in Peru, the area of influence of a gas pipeline. Methods: We surveyed 127 (1 m × 1 m) permanent plots annually between 2017 and 2019 to assess plant communities, calculated diversity metrics, and applied non-parametric hypothesis testing analysis of similarities and multivariate analyses to the data. Results: We identified 13 plant communities with 3.5 to 11.7 mean species richness. Only seven were statistically different; the other six were rare and require additional surveys to define their status as independent communities. The Distichia muscoides-dominated community was found in most sites (90%), plots (55%), and along the entire elevational range we studied. D. muscoides, Plantago tubulosa, and Rockhausenia pygmaea were the most frequent species in the studied bofedales (in 30 of 31 sites). These species are usually cushion or carpet forming, so average plant cover was high in most plant communities where they occurred (89–98%). The seven plant communities (dominated by D. muscoides, R. pygmaea, Plantago tubulosa, P. rigida, Lachemilla diplophylla, Aciachne pulvinata and Juncus stipulatus) were consistent in their structural and compositional characteristics and maintained differences between them during our three-year study. Conclusions: We show that bofedal plant communities in the southern Peruvian Andes are more heterogeneous than the four broad types previously reported. This heterogeneity occurs at local site levels but also at landscape and regional scales. We highlight the importance of considering this heterogeneity when discussing and implementing management, restoration, and conservation actions in bofedales. Taxonomic reference: WFO (2024)

Effects of Urbanization on Community Composition and Conditions of Birds in Wetland Ecosystems

Urbanization in wetlands has negatively impacted bird species diversity and populations. It is important to be able to predict the consequences for avian biodiversity and to identify wetlands of special value to the maintenance of local wetland communities. This study involved conducting point counts across four permanent urban wetlands at the University of Florida and three retention ponds in the Gainesville, FL vicinity to observe patterns in wetland bird species diversity and populations. This study also utilized data from the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH) to explore differences in phenotypes of wetland bird specimens. The local wetlands showed trends where specific species thrived in one type of area versus the other. Egrets were frequently observed in larger wetlands, and double-crested cormorants were observed more frequently in smaller ones. Additionally, retention ponds showed promise as a conservation method, dependent on their depth and size. The largest retention pond attracted many bird species in great numbers, showing promise for methods to negate negative the impact of human activity and climate change. Characterization for data collected at the FLMNH on both weight and species analyzed across numerous regional locations showed a negative trend between specimen weight and time progression.

Differential impacts of fire and inundation on a wetland plant community after wildfire

Context Understanding fire and inundation impacts on wetland vegetation communities is crucial for effective post-fire wetland management. Aims We aimed to determine the impact of post-fire inundation on plant community structure and seedling germination and establishment after a large wildfire. We asked two questions, namely (1) did fire, drought or inundation affect plant communities the most; and (2) did fire or inundation affect seedling germination and establishment? Methods Using a before–after–control–impact (BACI) design, we monitored vegetation changes in water-couch wetland communities before and after a wildfire. Also, soil samples were collected from burnt and unburnt sites and assessed for impacts of fire and post-fire inundation regimes on seed germination and seedling establishment. Key results Inundation variables had more pronounced and more consistent impacts on vegetation measures than did fire or drought variables. Fire impacts were mainly short-term, with impact thresholds at 72 and 143 days after fire. Low germination levels and zero seedling survival were observed without inundation. Conclusions Fire was a major but short-term contributor to wetland vegetation change, whereas drought had longer-term impacts, and inundation regimes had the greatest impacts. Implications Providing a range of inundation conditions post-fire may enhance wetland vegetation recovery and have modifying effects on invasive species.

Constructing more comprehensive pollination networks: integrating diurnal and nocturnal pollen data with visitation in a subalpine wetland community.

Sampling for describing plant-pollinator interaction networks has been performed using techniques that either focus on the plants (with flower-visit data) or the animals (with analyzing pollen on the body surface of flower visitors). The differences in the structure of the networks obtained using these methods likely influences our understanding of the contribution of nocturnal pollinators, yet this key finding has yet to be the focus of study. In this study, we conducted an intensive diurnal field survey in the subalpine meadows of the Dajiuhu Wetland and supplemented the data with an analysis of diurnal and nocturnal pollen data to examine the changes in pollination networks. We observed 41 plant and 154 pollinator species, corresponding to 665 specific interactions. Visitation and pollen analyses showed significant differences in the composition and interaction between network plants and pollinators, resulting in important structural changes in the network. Given that the diurnal pollen data showed new links that were preferentially attached to highly connected nodes, the level of asymmetric specialization did not decrease; however, nestedness increased 1.3-fold, and mean pollinator connectivity from 3.1 to 5.1. As the behaviors of nocturnal pollinators tended to be more specialized, the inclusion of nocturnal pollen data led to an increase in the number of extreme-specialist pollinator species. Consequently, nestedness decreased 0.8-fold, but mean plant connectivity went from 14.2 to 16.2. These findings suggest that the structure of pollination networks is influenced by the sampling methods and the level of detail of the investigation. Our study has strong implications for the development of monitoring schemes for plant-pollinator interactions. Due to the practical difficulties of nocturnal field visitation, when conducting research, combining diurnal field visitation with both diurnal and nocturnal pollen analyses is the most convenient and realistic method to capture the full complexity of these networks.

Terrestrial support of wetland food webs via a dissolved inorganic carbon pathway

AbstractStudies of terrestrial support of aquatic food webs have focused primarily on terrestrial organic matter (t‐OM) directly used by animal and microbial consumers. However, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) released from t‐OM might also support aquatic primary producers, a key resource for zooplankton and upper trophic levels. Using 2‐yr 13C measurements of algae, zooplankton, terrestrial detritus, sediments, dissolved and particulate organic matter from six seasonal wetlands, we found that in January when algal concentration was low, zooplankton used t‐OM directly or heterotrophic microbes that decompose t‐OM, but in March and May zooplankton was mainly supported by algae as their basal resources, and the algae used DIC derived from the mineralization and methanogenesis of t‐OM, suggesting the DIC pathway of terrestrial support of aquatic food webs. The decomposition of abundant t‐OM from both bed sediments and water column caused high concentrations of DIC. Despite uptake by algae, about half of DIC produced in January and March ended up as emissions to the atmosphere in the form of CO2. This finding revealed the dual roles of t‐OM in maintaining the productivity and stability of aquatic food webs and in contributing to global carbon emissions. This duality poses challenges for simultaneously mitigating carbon emissions and conserving biological communities in seasonal wetlands. Finally, wide seasonal differences in δ13C in DIC (−12.4‰ to 6.7‰) were observed, mainly driven by air–water CO2 exchange and photosynthesis, suggesting that 13C may be a powerful tool to investigate carbon cycling in shallow, temporary freshwater ecosystems that are widespread but understudied.

Diversity of bacterial communities in wetlands of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve: a comparative analysis between conserved and semi-urbanized zones in pre-Mayan Train era

BackgroundThe Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR) is known for its rich animal and plant biodiversity, yet its microbial communities remain largely unknown. The reserve does not possess permanent bodies of water; nevertheless, seasonal depressions associated with fractures create wetlands, known locally as aguadas. Given the recent construction of the Maya train that crosses the CRB, it is essential to assess the biodiversity of its microorganisms and recognize their potential as a valuable source of goods. This evaluation is pivotal in mitigating potential mismanagement of the forest ecosystem. To enhance comprehension of microbial communities, we characterized the microbiota in three different wetlands. Ag-UD1 and Ag-UD2 wetlands are located in a zone without human disturbances, while the third, Ag-SU3, is in a semi-urbanized zone. Sampling was carried out over three years (2017, 2018, and 2019), enabling the monitoring of spatiotemporal variations in bacterial community diversity. The characterization of microbiome composition was conducted using 16S rRNA metabarcoding. Concurrently, the genomic potential of select samples was examined through shotgun metagenomics.ResultsStatistical analysis of alpha and beta diversity indices showed significant differences among the bacterial communities found in undisturbed sites Ag-UD1 and Ag-UD2 compared to Ag-SU3. However, no significant differences were observed among sites belonging to the undisturbed area. Furthermore, a comparative analysis at the zone level reveals substantial divergence among the communities, indicating that the geographic location of the samples significantly influences these patterns. The bacterial communities in the CBR wetlands predominantly consist of genera from phyla Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Proteobacteria.ConclusionThis characterization has identified the composition of microbial communities and provided the initial overview of the metabolic capacities of the microbiomes inhabiting the aguadas across diverse conservation zones. The three sites exhibit distinct microbial compositions, suggesting that variables such as chemical composition, natural and anthropogenic disturbances, vegetation, and fauna may play a pivotal role in determining the microbial structure of the aguadas. This study establishes a foundational baseline for evaluating the impact of climatic factors and human interventions on critical environments such as wetlands.

Salinization and low-dose levels of pesticides alter brain shape of larval amphibians

Wetland communities are increasingly threatened by multiple stressors simultaneously, such as pesticides and salinization. We examined the effects of ecologically-relevant exposures to broad-spectrum insecticides and salinization on amphibian neurodevelopment, which is strongly linked to how organisms respond behaviorally to environmental change. Prior research showed that exposure to trace concentrations of an organophosphate pesticide (chlorpyrifos) altered the brain shape and behavior of larval and metamorphic amphibians. It is unknown whether brain shape is altered by additional pesticides and road salt. Using outdoor mesocosms, we tested whether salt (NaCl) and representatives from three pesticide families (organophosphates, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids) altered tadpole (Lithobates pipiens) brain shape. Of the two organophosphates, chlorpyrifos induced relatively longer telencephalon lengths relative to body mass, consistent with previous studies, but malathion had no effect on brain shape. Of the two pyrethroids, permethrin, but not cypermethrin, increased telencephalon length. For the neonicotinoids, there were marginally significant effects of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam on telencephalon length. Thus, the impacts of pesticides on brain shape was not dictated by pesticide family. Exposure to relatively high concentrations of salt resulted in brains that were less wide but had longer optic tecta. Although we failed to find strong interactive effect of salt with pesticides, there was some weak, nonsignificant, evidence that exposure to salt masked responses to pesticides. Together, our results indicate that environmentally realistic levels of pesticides and salinization can alter larval brain shape. Our study highlights the importance of studying the impacts of naturally-occurring levels of pesticides and salinization on vertebrate neural development.

Effects of warming on litter decomposition and fungal communities in lake wetlands

Effects of warming on litter decomposition and fungal communities in lake wetlands

Seasonal and spatial characteristics of microbial community in intertidal wetlands: Aspect of microbial coupling

The simultaneous reductions of pollution and carbon are widely concerned in sewage treatment. Various microorganisms with synergies are existed in the intertidal wetlands, which have the potential to be the microbial inoculation used in sewage treatment. In this study, the microorganisms in the reed wetlands of the Yellow River Delta in four seasons and at four layers (0–5, 5–10, 10–15, and 15–20 cm) were investigated by high-throughput sequencing technology. The results showed that the majority of functional bacteria were denitrifying bacteria in the spring and summer. Spring was the primary season for hydrogen autotrophic denitrification, whereas summer was the primary season for sulfur autotrophic denitrification. A range of bacteria connected to one another by cable bacteria cooperated to finish the cycle of several elements in the 10–15 cm layer in autumn. A distinctive characteristic of functional bacteria was the anaerobic methane oxidation mediated by NC10 facultative bacteria in the 0–5 cm layer in winter. The results of this study provide an inspiration for utilizing suitable microbial inoculation to realize the simultaneous reductions of pollution and carbon in the future sewage treatment.

Effects of different emergent macrophytes on methane flux and rhizosphere microbial communities in wetlands

Emergent macrophytes are of great importance for the structure and functioning of wetland ecosystems and play a significant role in environmental improvement, element cycling, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, our understanding of how GHG fluxes differ among macrophyte species and its links with the microbial communities remain limited. In this study, we investigated the rhizosphere microbial communities (including total bacteria, methanotrophs, and methanogens) and the GHG fluxes associated with four emergent macrophytes—Phragmites australis, Thalia dealbata, Pontederia cordata, and Zizania latifolia—collected from Xuanwu Lake wetland, China. We observed the highest CH4 flux (FCH4) (9.35 ± 2.52 mg·m−2·h−1) from Z. latifolia zone, followed by P. australis, P. cordata, and T. dealbata zones (5.38 ± 1.63, 2.38 ± 2.91, and 2.02 ± 0.69 mg·m−2·h−1, respectively). Methanogenesis was methylotrophic at all sites, as the 13C-CH4 values were higher than −64 ‰ and the fractionation coefficients were lower than 1.055. We found a positive linear relationship between FCH4 and the methanogen community, in particular the relative abundances of Methanobacterium and Methanosarcina, indicating that the variations in FCH4 among the studied macrophyte-dominated zones might be attributed to the differences in rhizosphere microbial communities. The methane emissions in various macrophyte zones might be due to the higher capacity of methanogenesis compared to methane oxidation which was inhibited by nutrient-rich sediments. Our findings provide insights for selecting specific emergent macrophytes characterized by low FCH4 in wetland ecological restoration.

Effects of water level on soil seed bank in the floodplain wetland of Juzhang River, China

Aiming to understand the responses of soil seed bank to different water levels, we investigated vegetation and soil seed bank along a water level gradient (frequently flooded area, unflooded area) on the floodplain wetland of Juzhang River. We used the structural equation model to explore the direct and indirect effects of water level on soil seed bank, and used non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) to assess the role of soil seed bank for vegetation regeneration. The results showed that the density of transient and persistent seed banks at unflooded area was 36.9% and 7.8% higher than that of frequently flooded area, respectively. Shannon index and Pielou index of seed bank and vegetation were significantly affected by water level and sampling location. Water level significantly affected the similarity between seed bank and aboveground vegetation, and the similarity of persistent seed bank with aboveground vegetation was significantly higher than that with transient seed bank. Structural equation model showed that water level had a direct effect on seed bank density, and indirect effects on density and richness of seed bank via affecting soil pH and NH4+-N content. NMDS results showed that there was no significant difference in the composition of the persistent seed bank and vegetation community in autumn under different water levels, but water level significantly changed the community composition of transient seed bank. Transient seed bank was affected by the vegetation and soil property, while persistent seed bank was determined by aboveground vegetation and water level. Although soil seed bank had low regeneration potential for the vegetation communities in floodplain wetlands, soil seed bank could not be neglected during the restoration of propagule diversity after disturbance in wetlands. Persistent seed bank would be an importance source of diversity of propagules for floodplain wetlands restoration following disturbance.

Experimental warming increases respiration and affects microbial communities of soil wetlands at different elevations of the Argentinean Puna

Experimental warming increases respiration and affects microbial communities of soil wetlands at different elevations of the Argentinean Puna

Floristic changes and environmental drivers of soil fungi and archaea in different salt-tolerant plant communities in the intertidal habitat of coastal wetlands.

Microorganisms are crucial elements of terrestrial ecosystems, which play significant roles in improving soil physicochemical properties, providing plant growth nutrients, degrading toxic and harmful chemicals, and biogeochemical cycling. Variations in the types and quantities of root exudates among different plants greatly alter soil physicochemical properties and result in variations in the diversity, structure, and function of soil microorganisms. Not much is understood about the differences of soil fungi and archaea communities for different plant communities in coastal wetlands, and their response mechanisms to environmental changes. In this study, fungal and archaea communities in soils of Suaeda salsa, Phragmites australis, and Spartina alterniflora in the intertidal habitat of coastal wetlands were selected for research. Soil fungi and archaea were analyzed for diversity, community structure, and function using high throughput ITS and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The study revealed significant differences in fungi and archaea's diversity and community structure in the rhizosphere soil of three plant communities. At the same time, there is no significant difference in the functional groups. SOM, TP, AP, MC, EC and SOM, TN, TP, AP, MC, EC are the primary environmental determinants affecting changes in soil fungal and archaeal communities, respectively. Variations in the diversity, community structure, and ecological functions of fungi and archaea can be used as indicators characterizing the impact of external disturbances on the soil environment, providing a theoretical foundation for the effective utilization of soil microbial resources, thereby achieving the goal of environmental protection and health promotion.

Scale-dependent effects of herbivory on moss communities in Arctic wetlands: A 25-year experiment.

Arctic ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes, including increasing disturbance by herbivore populations, which can affect plant species coexistence and community assemblages. Although the significance of mosses in Arctic wetlands is well recognized, the long-term influence of medium-sized herbivores on the composition of moss communities has received limited attention. We used data from a long-term (25 years) Greater Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens atlanticus) exclusion experiment in Arctic tundra wetlands to assess changes in the composition of moss communities at multiple spatial scales (cell, 4 cm2; quadrat, 100 cm2; exclosure, 16 m2). We investigated how snow goose grazing and grubbing can alter the composition of the moss community by measuring changes in alpha and beta diversity, as well as in the strength of plant interspecific interactions between moss species. Our results indicate that goose foraging significantly increased species diversity (richness, evenness, and inverse Simpson index) of moss communities at the cell and quadrat scales but not the exclosure scale. Goose foraging reduced the dissimilarity (beta diversity) of moss communities at all three scales, mainly due to decreased species turnover. Furthermore, goose foraging increased positive interaction between moss species pairs. These findings emphasize the critical role of geese in promoting moss species coexistence and increasing homogeneity in Arctic wetlands. This study illustrates how top-down regulation by herbivores can alter plant communities in Arctic wetlands and highlights the importance of considering herbivores when examining the response of Arctic plant biodiversity to future climate change.

Response mechanism of soil microorganisms to simulated precipitation in the source wetland of Qinghai Lake

BackgroundChanges in precipitation patterns crucially impact soil microbial communities, and the ecosystem in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) is highly vulnerable to climate change. However, we do not fully understand how soil microbial communities in the source wetlands of QTP respond to changes in precipitation. In this study, we employed advanced techniques such as high-throughput sequencing and metabolomics to investigate how soil microbial communities in a source wetland of Qinghai Lake respond to changes in precipitation after quadrennial precipitation treatment.ResultsOur findings showed that the predominant microbiota in the source wetland was Proteobacteria. Interestingly, alterations in precipitation levels, whether increased or reduced, did not significantly impact the diversity or functional groups of the microbial community. However, the structure of the microbial community did respond notably to changes in precipitation, leading to shifts in the relative abundance of Spirochaetes and Treponema. A notable finding was that reduced precipitation levels (– 25% and − 50%) and mild increases in precipitation (25%) within the region contributed to increased soil carbon content. However, this effect ceased to manifest when precipitation increased by 50%. Additionally, the reduction in precipitation prompted the release of soil metabolites like syringic acid and aldosterone, while enhanced precipitation resulted in a decrease in aldosterone content.ConclusionsPrecipitation changes altered the relative abundance of soil microbial communities and metabolites, which was conducive to increasing carbon storage in this alpine wetland.

Effects of Warming and Elevated CO2 on Stomatal Conductance and Chlorophyll Fluorescence of C3 and C4 Coastal Wetland Species

Coastal wetland communities provide valuable ecosystem services such as erosion prevention, soil accretion, and essential habitat for coastal wildlife, but are some of the most vulnerable to the threats of climate change. This work investigates the combined effects of two climate stressors, elevated temperature (ambient, + 1.7 °C, + 3.4 °C, and 5.1 °C) and elevated CO2 (eCO2), on leaf physiological traits of dominant salt marsh plant species. The research took place at the Salt Marsh Accretion Response to Temperature eXperiment (SMARTX) at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, which includes two plant communities: a C3 sedge community and a C4 grass community. Here we present data collected over five years on rates of stomatal conductance (gs), quantum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (Fv/Fm), and rates of electron transport (ETRmax). We found that both warming and eCO2 caused declines in all traits, but the warming effects were greater for the C3 sedge. This species showed a strong negative stomatal response to warming in 2017 and 2018 (28% and 17% reduction, respectively in + 5.1 °C). However, in later years the negative response to warming was dampened to < 7%, indicating that S. americanus was able to partially acclimate to the warming over time. In 2022, we found that sedges growing in the combined + 5.1 °C eCO2 plots exhibited more significant declines in gs, Fv/Fm, and ETRmax than in either treatment individually. These results are important for predicting future trends in growth of wetland species, which serve as a large carbon sink that may help mitigate the effects of climate change.

Comparing DNA isolation and sequencing strategies for 16S rRNA gene amplicon analysis in biofilm containing environments

Bacteria are primarily responsible for biological water treatment processes in constructed wetland systems. Gravel in constructed wetlands serves as an essential substrate onto which complex bacterial biofilms may successfully grow and evolve. To fully understand the bacterial community in these systems it is crucial to properly isolate biofilms and process DNA from such substrates. This study looked at how best to isolate bacterial biofilms from gravel substrates in terms of bacterial richness. It considered factors including the duration of agitation during extraction, extraction temperature, and enzyme usage. Further, the 16S taxonomy data subsequently produced from Illumina MiSeq reads (using the SILVA 132 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) database on the DADA2 pipeline) were compared with the 16S data produced from Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) MinION reads (using the NCBI 16S database on the EPI2ME pipeline). Finally, performance was tested by comparing the taxonomy data generated from the Illumina MiSeq and ONT MinION reads using the same (SILVA 132) database. We found no significant differences in the effective number of species observed when using different bacterial biofilm detachment techniques. However, enzyme treatment enhanced the total concentration of DNA. In terms of wetland community profiles, relative abundance differences within each sample type were clearer at the genus level. For genus-level taxonomic classification, MinION sequencing with the EPI2ME pipeline (NCBI database) produced bacterial abundance information that was poorly correlated with that from the Illumina MiSeq and DADA2 pipelines (SILVA132 database). When using the same database for each sequencing technology (SILVA132), the correlation between relative abundances at genus-level improved from negligible to moderate. This study provides detailed information of value to researchers working on constructed wetlands regarding efficient biofilm detachment techniques for DNA isolation and 16 s metabarcoding platforms for sequencing and data analysis.

Implications of palustrine wetland configuration on the biodiversity of urban aquatic macroinvertebrate communities

Abstract Aquatic macroinvertebrates (AM) have a special ecological niche in the functionality of urban wetland communities. This class of animals also play a crucial role in urban environmental and water quality assessments through bio-indication and bio-monitoring. However, the continued loss and isolation of palustrine wetlands, driven by urbanization and other anthropogenic processes, result in reduced biodiversity of macroinvertebrate communities. This study sought to determine how palustrine wetland configuration affect biodiversity structure of AM in Nairobi. Wetland configuration attributes of area, perimeter, shape, and edge were examined. For wetland biodiversity, family richness and Shannon index of diversity were assessed. It was hypothesized that wetland configuration affects the biodiversity of AM. From a population of 303 wetlands, this study used heterogeneous sampling to identify and investigate 31 palustrine wetlands spread across the city of Nairobi. Data were collected using observation checklists and archival review. Correlations and multiple regression analysis were performed in IBM SPSS Statistics 21. It was found that wetland configuration significantly affected the biodiversity of AM at R2 = 0.587, F (6, 23) = 5.447, P &amp;lt; 0.001. The study highlights the need to identify the optimum wetland configuration pattern for the biotic enhancement and conservation of AM in palustrine wetland habitats in urban landscapes. Consequently, the ecological stability of urban wetland communities, their accessibility, as well as the innate affection by urban residents, become a desired conservation goal in urban planning and design.

Using vulnerability assessment to characterize coastal protection benefits provided by estuarine habitats of a dynamic intracoastal waterway.

The existence of coastal ecosystems depends on their ability to gain sediment and keep pace with sea level rise. Similar to other coastal areas, Northeast Florida (United States) is experiencing rapid population growth, climate change, and shifting wetland communities. Rising seas and more severe storms, coupled with the intensification of human activities, can modify the biophysical environment, thereby increasing coastal exposure to storm-induced erosion and inundation. Using the Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve as a case study, we analyzed the distribution of coastal protection services-expressly, wave attenuation and sediment control-provided by estuarine habitats inside a dynamic Intracoastal waterway. We explored six coastal variables that contribute to coastal flooding and erosion-(a) relief, (b) geomorphology, (c) estuarine habitats, (d) wind exposure, (e) boat wake energy, and (f) storm surge potential-to assess physical exposure to coastal hazards. The highest levels of coastal exposure were found in the north and south sections of the Reserve (9% and 14%, respectively) compared to only 4% in the central, with exposure in the south driven by low wetland elevation, high surge potential, and shorelines composed of less stable sandy and muddy substrate. The most vulnerable areas of the central Reserve and main channel of the Intracoastal waterway were exposed to boat wakes from larger vessels frequently traveling at medium speeds (10-20 knots) and had shoreline segments oriented towards the prevailing winds (north-northeast). To guide management for the recently expanded Reserve into vulnerable areas near the City of Saint Augustine, we evaluated six sites of concern where the current distribution of estuarine habitats (mangroves, salt marshes, and oyster beds) likely play the greatest role in natural protection. Spatially explicit outputs also identified potential elevation maintenance strategies such as living shorelines, landform modification, and mangrove establishment for providing coastal risk-reduction and other ecosystem-service co-benefits. Salt marshes and mangroves in two sites of the central section (N-312 and S-312) were found to protect more than a one-quarter of their cross-shore length (27% and 73%, respectively) from transitioning to the highest exposure category. Proposed interventions for mangrove establishment and living shorelines could help maintain elevation in these sites of concern. This work sets the stage for additional research, education, and outreach about where mangroves, salt marshes, and oyster beds are most likely to reduce risk to wetland communities in the region.

Dominance of non-wetland-dependent pollinators in a plant community in a small natural wetland in Shimane, Japan.

Many wetland plants rely on insects for pollination. However, studies examining pollinator communities in wetlands remain limited. Some studies conducted in large wetlands (> 10ha) have suggested that wetland-dependent flies, which spend their larval stage in aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats, dominate as pollinators. However, smaller wetlands surrounded by secondary forests are more prevalent in Japan, in which pollinators from the surrounding environment might be important. Additionally, information regarding floral traits that attract specific pollinator groups in wetland communities is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the characteristics of insect pollinators in a small natural wetland (2.5ha) in Japan. We examined the major pollinator groups visiting 34 plant species and explored the relationship between the flower visitation frequency of each pollinator group and floral traits. Overall, flies were the most dominant pollinators (42%), followed by bees and wasps (33%). Cluster analysis indicated that fly-dominated plants were the most abundant among 14 of the 34 target plant species. However, 85% of the hoverflies, the most abundant flies, and 82% of the bees were non-wetland-dependent species, suggesting that these terrestrial species likely originated from the surrounding environment. Therefore, pollinators from the surrounding environment would be important in small natural wetlands. Flies tend to visit open and white/yellow flowers, whereas bees tended to visit tube-shaped flowers, as in forest and grassland ecosystems. The dominance of flies in small wetlands would be due to the dominance of flowers preferred by flies (e.g., yellow/white flowers) rather than because of their larval habitats.