Community Drinking Water Systems Research Articles

Examining the Relationship Between Lead Exposures in Community Drinking Water Systems and Child Blood Lead Levels in Illinois

Examining the Relationship Between Lead Exposures in Community Drinking Water Systems and Child Blood Lead Levels in Illinois

Restoration versus transformative adaptation of community drinking water systems after Hurricanes Irma and Maria in Puerto Rico.

Hurricane Irma then Maria hit Puerto Rico in September 2017, exposing the heightened vulnerability of the island's Critical Infrastructure Systems and Processes (CRISPs) and putting the resilience of some of the most impoverished communities to the test. Being one of these CRISPs, the island's centralized drinking water system operated by the Puerto Rico Aqueduct and Sewer Authority suffered heavy damage leaving over 200,000 people off-grid for months. Decentralized community aqueducts were also affected. However, most were able to sustain operations, with only 15 percent incapacitated during the first few weeks after Maria. Of the 205 community aqueducts serving low-income communities in the island's central mountainous areas, only 35 failed. This article explores how and why these systems failed and what actions the communities should take to recover in a relatively short time in comparison to the centralized system. It defines the factors that account for the differences, the systems' capacity to meet water quality requirements, and potentially transformative adaptations generated to face future disturbances. We were interested in understanding (a) how system capacity was affected by the restoration process, (b) if adaptation resulted in significant operational changes, and (c) community member engagement. Finally, we explored governance transformations that increased stakeholder's participation, including community aqueducts representatives in decision-making and policy-making. Data collection included interviews with water system managers, government, and nongovernmental organization (NGO) representatives who regulate these systems or assisted communities in recovering their systems. We also surveyed water systems that had operational problems within the first 3 weeks. The data revealed a diversity of actions along the disaster cycle through which communities prepared for, restored, recovered, and cocreated transformative adaptations to their systems. Findings reflect that despite economic deficiencies and lack of emergency plans, many communities were able to improvise and restore their water systems soon after the disaster. As part of their postdisaster organization, communities increased their collaborative networks with governmental and NGOs to cocreate improvement projects to enhance resiliency. Adaptations included (1) increased community autonomy, (2) system redundancy, and (3) improved capacity to participate in government discussion forums related to their systems.

South Carolina Sampling, Analysis, and Governance of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

The extent of sampling, analytical, and governance guidelines for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in individual states is currently inconsistent. There are no federally mandated regulations on PFAS, and the geochemical variations within different states can lead to regionally specific PFAS contamination, resulting in state-specific guidelines for PFAS contamination in different environmental matrices. There are no facilities in South Carolina known to currently or previously produce PFAS; however, they may be used in the production of other goods at industries throughout South Carolina, including Class B firefighting foams, consumer items, packaging, and stain- and weather-resistant fabrics. We assessed the sampling, analytical, and governance strategies of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) to understand current state-specific guidelines for PFAS contamination in South Carolina. This assessment indicates that SCDHEC has conducted sampling and analysis of community drinking water systems supplied by surface water for PFAS contamination. Additionally, risk indicators have been made for highly susceptible areas for likely PFAS contamination, including Department of Defense (DOD) and Department of Energy (DOE) sites, airports, and landfills in South Carolina. Recently, bills have been introduced into the South Carolina legislature to address PFAS. These proactive approaches in South Carolina aid in the assessment of the risks of PFAS contamination and are important steps for SCDHEC and South Carolina legislative stakeholders as they continue to develop and enforce state-specific standards for PFAS chemicals and await more information and official regulatory drivers from the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).

Reclaiming Indigenous Planning as a Pathway to Local Water Security

Access to drinkable water is essential to human life. The consequence of unsafe drinking water can be damaging to communities and catastrophic to human health. Today, one in five First Nation communities in Canada is on a boil water advisory, with some advisories lasting over 10 years. Factors contributing to this problem stretch back to colonial structures and institutional arrangement that reproduce woefully inadequate community drinking water systems. Notwithstanding these challenges, First Nation communities remain diligent, adaptive, and innovative in their efforts to provide drinkable water to their community members. One example is through the practice of source water protection planning. Source water is untreated water from groundwater or surface water that supplies drinking water for human consumption. Source water protection is operationalized through land and water planning activities aimed at reducing the risk of contamination from entering a public drinking water supply. Here, we introduce a source water protection planning process at Muskowekwan First Nation, Treaty 4, Saskatchewan. The planning process followed a community-based participatory approach guided by trust, respect, and reciprocity between community members and university researchers. Community members identified threats to the drinking water source followed by restorative land management actions to reduce those threats. The result of this process produced much more than a planning document but engaged multiple community members in a process of empowerment and self-determination. The process of plan-making produced many unintended results including human–land connectivity, reconnection with the water spirit, as well as the reclaiming of indigenous planning. Source water protection planning may not correct all the current water system inadequacies that exist on many First Nations, but it will empower communities to take action to protect their drinking water sources for future generations as a pathway to local water security.

A methodology to assess vulnerability in small communities drinking water systems

ABSTRACT In many countries, small community systems have an important role as suppliers of drinking water for large part of the population. These systems must be evaluated with respect to their capacity to produce and deliver safe drinking water. As there are thousands of small systems to be evaluated in any given region, it is necessary to develop a procedure for selecting a representative sample, as well as the use of indicators that can provide information about the state of the systems. The objective of this study was to propose and apply a methodology to evaluate the vulnerability of small communities drinking water systems. The methodology includes the application of a statistical method to select a representative sample of systems in a region. It also proposes vulnerability indicators, ratings and an index. As a case study, the methodology was applied to determine the vulnerability of small community drinking water systems in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Data collected with application of the proposed methodology indicated that 67% of the surveyed systems were classified as having intermediate and high levels of vulnerabilities, hence at risk of distributing water that is not safe for drinking.

Individual and Additive Disinfectant Byproducts in Community Drinking Water Systems and Associations with Colorectal and Bladder Cancer Incidence, Accounting for Population Served

Disinfectant byproducts (DBPs) haloacetic acids (HAA5) and total trihalomethanes (TTHM) used in community water systems (CWS) are potential bladder and colorectal carcinogens. Studies neglect to account for how exposures may differ within counties based on population served (PS) by CWS, which provides estimates of individual exposure. CWS concentration data for HAA5 and TTHM with PS were obtained for eight US states. These were summed to create additive DBP exposure and aggregated to the county-level to construct three cumulative county-level HAA5, TTHM, and additive DBP exposure metrics: unadjusted for PS; controlled for PS (as a covariate); and accounted for PS (concentration multiplied by proportion of PS by county population). Poisson regressions estimated incidence rate ratios (IRR) and 95% confidence intervals for associations between colorectal and bladder cancer and DBP, HAA5, and TTHM exposure tertiles, adjusting for potential confounders. For unadjusted DBP tertiles (<331 parts per billion (ppb), 331-732 ppb, >732ppb), the IRRs for colorectal cancer were 1.27 (1.22,1.32) and 1.58 (1.53,1.64) for tertiles 2-3, compared to <331 ppb, the lowest exposure category. For DBP tertiles controlled by PS, the IRRs were 1.27 (1.22,1.32) and 1.59 (1.54,1.65) for tertiles 2-3, compared to <331 ppb. After accounting for PS (<178 ppb, 178-502 ppb, >502 ppb), the IRRs were 0.92 (0.88,0.96) and 1.46 (1.41,1.51) for tertiles 2-3, compared to <178 ppb. Associations between colorectal cancer and HAA5 and TTHM tertiles were similar to the DBP tertiles. Associations between bladder cancer and HAA5, TTHM, and DBP tertiles were also similar to colorectal. Differing measures of PS by CWS in measured drinking water HAA5, TTHM, and DBP concentrations resulted in positive but varied associations to colorectal and bladder cancer. Thus, PS may need to be considered when developing drinking water exposure measures. This abstract does not reflect EPA policy.

Biofilm forming ability of Sphingomonas paucimobilis isolated from community drinking water systems on plumbing materials used in water distribution.

Sphingomonas paucimobilis, an oligotroph, is well recognized for its potential for biofilm formation. The present study explored the biofilm forming ability of a strain isolated from municipal drinking water on plumbing materials. The intensity of biofilm formation of this strain on different plumbing materials was examined by using 1 × 1 cm2 pieces of six different pipe materials, i.e. polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), aluminium (Al), copper (Cu) and rubber (R) and observing by staining with the chemical chromophore, Calcofluor. To understand whether biofilm formation occurs under flow through conditions, a laboratory-scale simulated distribution system, comprised of the above materials was fabricated. Biofilm samples were collected from the designed system at different biofilm ages (10, 40 and 90 hours old) and enumerated. The results indicated that the biofilm formation occurred on all plumbing materials with Cu and R as exceptions. The intensity of biofilm formation was found to be maximum on PVC followed by PP and PE. We also demonstrated the chemical chromophore (Calcofluor) successfully for rapid and easy visual detection of biofilms, validated by scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of the plumbing materials. Chlorination has little effect in preventing biofilm development.

Water compliance challenges: how do Canadian small water systems respond?

Fundamental to community health and well-being is the capacity to access a sustainable supply of safe drinking water. Small community drinking water systems are the most vulnerable to contamination, and struggle to secure the funds necessary to improve water treatment and delivery systems, and meet increasingly stringent drinking water quality regulations. Little is known of the contextual and cultural differences between communities and the impact this has on regulatory compliance. This study explored the experiences and impact of individual actors within seven small community drinking water systems in locations across Canada. Qualitative, in-person interviews were conducted with water operators, consumers, and decision-makers in each community, and these findings were analysed thematically. Findings from the study show that communities approach and align with compliance challenges in three distinct ways: by adopting regulator-provided or regulator-driven solutions, by adopting an existing improvement framework (i.e. regionalization), or through reinvention to address a new issue or concern. Policy-makers looking to align small communities with appropriate water quality goals may benefit from a consideration of these contextual and cultural differences.

Environmental justice implications of arsenic contamination in California’s San Joaquin Valley: a cross-sectional, cluster-design examining exposure and compliance in community drinking water systems

BackgroundFew studies of environmental justice examine inequities in drinking water contamination. Those studies that have done so usually analyze either disparities in exposure/harm or inequitable implementation of environmental policies. The US EPA’s 2001 Revised Arsenic Rule, which tightened the drinking water standard for arsenic from 50 μg/L to 10 μg/L, offers an opportunity to analyze both aspects of environmental justice.MethodsWe hypothesized that Community Water Systems (CWSs) serving a higher proportion of minority residents or residents of lower socioeconomic status (SES) have higher drinking water arsenic levels and higher odds of non-compliance with the revised standard. Using water quality sampling data for arsenic and maximum contaminant level (MCL) violation data for 464 CWSs actively operating from 2005–2007 in California’s San Joaquin Valley we ran bivariate tests and linear regression models.ResultsHigher home ownership rate was associated with lower arsenic levels (ß-coefficient= −0.27 μg As/L, 95% (CI), -0.5, -0.05). This relationship was stronger in smaller systems (ß-coefficient= −0.43, CI, -0.84, -0.03). CWSs with higher rates of homeownership had lower odds of receiving an MCL violation (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.16, 0.67); those serving higher percentages of minorities had higher odds (OR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.2, 5.4) of an MCL violation.ConclusionsWe found that higher arsenic levels and higher odds of receiving an MCL violation were most common in CWSs serving predominantly socio-economically disadvantaged communities. Our findings suggest that communities with greater proportions of low SES residents not only face disproportionate arsenic exposures, but unequal MCL compliance challenges.

UV Disinfection in Alaska: Meeting the Challenges of Weather, Terrain, and Permitting

This article discusses four Alaskan community drinking water systems that operate under filtration avoidance status as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The article describes how each one chose ultraviolet (UV) disinfection to bring their utility into compliance with the USEPA's Long Term 2 Enchanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (LT2), which requires all water systems operating under filtration avoidance status to add filtration or a second disinfectant to the treatment system. Project challenges unique to working in Alaska are discussed.

Estimates of endemic waterborne risks from community-intervention studies

The nature and magnitude of endemic waterborne disease are not well characterized in the United States. Epidemiologic studies of various designs can provide an estimate of the waterborne attributable risk along with other types of information. Community drinking water systems frequently improve their operations and may change drinking water treatment and their major source of water. In the United States, many of these treatment changes are the result of regulations promulgated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. A community-intervention study design takes advantage of these "natural" experiments to assess changes in health risks. In this paper, we review the community-intervention studies that have assessed changes in waterborne gastroenteritis risks among immunocompetent populations in industrialized countries. Published results are available from two studies in Australia, one study in the United Kingdom, and one study in the United States. Preliminary results from two other US studies are also available. Although the current information is limited, the risks reported in these community-intervention studies can help inform the national estimate of endemic waterborne gastroenteritis. Information is provided about endemic waterborne risks for unfiltered surface water sources and a groundwater under the influence of surface water. Community-intervention studies with recommended study modifications should be conducted to better estimate the benefits associated with improved drinking water treatment.

The inequity of the Revised Arsenic Rule for very small community drinking water systems

Abstract The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently reduced the maximum contaminant level for arsenic in community drinking water systems from 50 to 10 ppb. EPA uses net benefit analyses aggregated at the national-scale to set drinking water standards. Such aggregation may result in compliance options that are not cost-effective for very small systems, and may limit opportunities for these communities to receive variances. We completed a benefit-cost analysis and an affordability analysis of 14 tribal communities in Arizona to better understand the regulation's impact on very small water systems ranging from 6 to 95 service connections. Compliance alternatives included both technological and non-technological solutions. Health benefits were based on an EPA study of morbidity and mortality. The results show that all communities can comply with feasible alternatives; however, the tangible costs of the revised arsenic regulation far outweigh the expected health benefits and do not meet EPA's affordability criteria. The results support other studies that suggest a more equitable regulatory-setting process is needed to consider both health and economic impacts. Otherwise, the unintended result is a shifting of resources among risks instead of actual risk reduction.

Oregon's SDWRLF gets under way

Oregon takes a step‐by‐step approach to setting up a state drinking water revolving loan fund.The 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments established a Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) to help states and their community drinking water systems meet regulations. Oregon's efforts to secure and administer its share of the DWSRF led to the design and development of the state Safe Drinking Water Revolving Loan Fund (SDWRLF). The SDWRLF program was developed over the course of 18 months in close cooperation with the Oregon Drinking Water Advisory Committee, the Oregon Health Division, the Oregon Economic Development Department, and the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. The design that emerged from their collaborative contributions represents a significant effort to improve and protect public drinking water systems in the state.

Longitudinal studies of Giardia contamination in two community drinking water supplies: cyst levels, parasite viability, and health impact.

Giardia cyst concentrations were determined in an inventory of 153 raw and 91 chlorinated drinking water samples collected at 86 sites from throughout the western Canadian province of British Columbia. Sixty-four percent of raw water samples were cyst positive (69% of sites). Cyst concentrations were lower in chlorinated than in raw water. The viability of cysts in drinking water samples assessed by infectivity in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) was decreased in chlorinated water. Two rural communities using Giardia-contaminated surface drinking water sources were selected for longitudinal studies including drinking water testing and serological studies of residents. Three hundred thirty-six raw and treated samples from these communities were collected over 24 months. Cyst concentrations and viability were assessed in a 12-month study of each community. Parasite concentrations were lower in chlorinated water than in raw water in both communities. Cyst concentrations were lower in reservoir-settled water than in raw water. Viability, assessed by animal infectivity and corrected for inoculum, decreased following reservoir settling as well as after chlorination. A bolus or spiking phenomenon of cysts was observed in both community drinking water systems and deserves further study. A striking seasonal pattern was seen in one community but not in the second. The seroprevalence data and number of laboratory-confirmed cases identified in each year-long community study are consistent with the possibility that low-level endemic transmission is occurring.

Comparing Three Sampling Designs for Monitoring Coliforms in Small Community Water Systems

Three sampling designs—weekly, monthly, and spatial cluster—are compared to determine their effectiveness in detecting coliform contamination in small community drinking water systems. Water samples were collected over a one‐year period from 15 systems in rural Vermont and New Hampshire. Sampling five times a month, regardless of whether samples were collected simultaneously at five different sites within a system (spatial cluster) or once a week at the same site, detected between 50 and 100 percent more incidents of contamination than were found by sampling once a month. The spatial cluster design was slightly more sensitive than the weekly sampling design in its ability to detect coliform contamination.