Community Conservation Area Research Articles

LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CONSERVATION AREA OF THE CHIPANJE CHETU PROGRAM IN NIASSA, MOZAMBIQUE

Level of involvement of local communities in the management of the conservation area of the Chipanje Chetu program in Niassa, Mozambique. Developing projects for management of community conservation areas is a process that involves several entities, including governmental institutions, NGOs, private sectors and local communities. With the aim of evaluating the “level of involvement of local communities in the management of the conservation area of the Chipanje Chetu (our wealth) program in Niassa, Mozambique”, a participatory survey was carried out in the five communities. Semi-structured interviews, direct observation and document analysis were carried out, and subsequently analyzed using R Software, based on the analysis of pattern consistency, methodological triangulation and the citizen participation scale. It was observed that the participation of communities in the process of management and conservation of natural resources is at the delegated power level. The level of community participation and the degree of importance are associated with issues of benefit sharing and man-animal conflicts in this area.

Conservation with hard borders: Ethiopian wolves are threatened by fragmentation and isolation

Unlike most canids, versatile and capable of navigating vast landscapes, endangered Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) are endemic to an archipelago of Afroalpine islands. As a habitat specialist, the Ethiopian wolf is ill‐equipped to move across a highly transformed and densely populated agriculture matrix. Hard borders imposed by expanding subsistence agriculture lock Ethiopian wolves into further isolation, with few opportunities for dispersal and recolonisation. We report and evaluate empirical information from long‐term monitoring across the species' range to understand processes of habitat loss, recolonisation and extinction in recent and historical times, and to assess what conservation measures and strategies would ensure their persistence. Ethiopian wolves occurred in six isolated populations, totalling 454 wolves (population sizes ranged between 281 and 24) occupying 2700 km2 of Afroalpine habitat. We describe three population extinctions and three local extinctions within fragmented populations, and present evidence of factors accelerating the extinction process, such as disease (rabies and canine distemper virus), persecution, road kills and poisoning. Of all the suitable habitat available to wolves, 86% was included within nine protected areas, including three new Community Conservation Areas and two national park extensions in the past 10 years. As all Ethiopian wolf populations are small and vulnerable to stochastic events and environmental perturbation, conservation efforts to ensure the long‐term survival of the species need to integrate: 1) support for protected areas to halt agriculture encroachment and to regulate sustainable uses of natural resources; 2) efforts to minimise all causes of mortality, including but not limited to disease; and 3) conservation translocations to overcome fundamental barriers to dispersal in the highlands of Ethiopia.

Primates in the Hood (Primates en el Barrio): Improving knowledge of threatened primates through schools science projects in rural settings in San Martin, Peru.

We aimed to improve knowledge among high school students on local environmental issues, with emphasis on the ecology and threats to primates in the Alto Mayo Valley of San Martin Region, Peru. The Alto Mayo Valley is home to at least 8 species of primate, including the endemic and Critically Endangered San Martín titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe). San Martin is also the most deforested region of Peru. We used two participatory teaching methods: Experiential learning and inquiry-based education. The learning experiences were activities that guided students to look for solutions to real-life situations. The project consisted of 8 lessons co-designed by us and the participating school teachers, and implemented by the same teachers with our guidance. Lesson 5 was a field trip to a local community conservation area to apply primatological field techniques and gather scientific data. The students' final product was a video presentation and a poster of their results. One hundred percent of students acknowledged they learned something new about their local environment, primates, conservation, and research. Experiential learning techniques are effective in developing awareness, knowledge and self-advocacy amongst school students. Our inquiry-based method placed students and teachers closer to scientists, helping them to see the role of science in their neighbourhood. This method can be easily adapted to other regions in Peru and globally.

Impact of Artisanal Gold Mining in Community Conserved Areas with High Biodiversity Using a Multi-Criteria Approach: A Case Study in Colombia

Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) using mercury affects community agreements for the conservation of forests (CoS) and lakes (CoH), which have a high level of biodiversity in the Peasant Reserve Zone of the Cimitarra River Valley (ZRC-VRC) in Colombia. In this research, a multi-criteria approach (MCA) was applied to analyze the impact of ASGM. This analysis is based on the community environmental agreements to preserve CoS and CoH areas, the ecological importance of these areas, as well as the results of mercury dispersion in the Cimitarra river basin, with concentrations found 40 km downstream of the mining area of 0.09 µgTHg L−1 in the Cimitarra river, 0.07 µgTHg L−1 in the CoH, and 0.01 mgTHg kg−1 in the tissues of macrophytes, as well as the increase in deforestation since 2020 in the CoS, due to a 1.8% (990 ha) loss of forest cover, with 693 ha of the forest cover loss coinciding with areas related to the opening of new mines. The MCA showed that the main impact is found within the criterion Social and armed conflict, followed by Deforestation. This research offers recommendations to reduce impact scores, such as the implementation of a sustainable development plan (PDS) of the ZRC-VRC, and it highlights the urgent need to safeguard the community conservation areas.

The role of Dodola Community Conservation Area for large mammal conservation, Ethiopia

The role of community conservation areas for large mammals is rarely evaluated. We investigated the species richness and frequency of sightings of large mammals in the Dodola Community Conservation Area. The study area was stratified into three habitat types, and 49 lines transect was laid (27 Dry evergreen Afromontane forests, 20 Sub-afro-alpine habitats, and 2 plantation forests) based on the topography, land use, and vegetation cover of the study area. A total of 24 species of large mammals were identified and recorded in the study area. Though the community conservation area is home to diverse species of mammals, including some endemic and endangered ones such as mountain nyala and Bale Monkey, human encroachment, agriculture, and overgrazing are prominent in the area, putting huge pressure on flora and fauna. Therefore, we recommend the participatory approach be strengthened to ensure sustainable coexistence between people and wildlife.

Analysis of the effects of habitat characteristics, human disturbance and prey on felids presence using long-term community monitoring information

Predator species are essential for ecosystems as they maintain the ecological integrity of the habitat. Particularly, felids populations have declined globally due to their sensitivity to habitat disturbances. Nevertheless, in Mexico, there are areas protected by indigenous communities to preserve a portion of their territory, benefiting multiple species, including felids. Although the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas of Mexico sponsors a long-term national-wide communal monitoring programme using camera traps, there is not a systematic analysis of the information generated by the programme. We assessed the occurrence of three felids species known to occur in a Zapotec indigenous community conservation area in Oaxaca, Mexico. Specifically, we evaluated how habitat characteristics, human disturbance and prey influence felids’ occurrence across the protected area. None of the variables explained better than the null model the proportion of sites used by Pumas (Puma concolor). Bobcats and Margays favour areas with medium-sized prey. Our study shows the importance of community-based monitoring and information systems (CBMIS) for identifying communal reserve characteristics that contribute to the occupation of carnivores. Further, our results also suggest that management should consider the habitat requirements of felids´ prey. By understanding wildlife habitat use, communal authorities could improve sustainable forest management within the reserves.

Extinction risks and mitigation for a megaherbivore, the giraffe, in a human-influenced landscape under climate change.

Megaherbivores play "outsized" roles in ecosystem functioning but are vulnerable to human impacts such as overhunting, land-use changes, and climate extremes. However, such impacts-and combinations of these impacts-on population dynamics are rarely examined using empirical data. To guide effective conservation actions under increasing global-change pressures, we developed a socially structured individual-based model (IBM) using long-term demographic data from female giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in a human-influenced landscape in northern Tanzania, the Tarangire Ecosystem. This unfenced system includes savanna habitats with a wide gradient of anthropogenic pressures, from national parks, a wildlife ranch and community conservation areas, to unprotected village lands. We then simulated and projected over 50 years how realistic environmental and land-use management changes might affect this metapopulation of female giraffes. Scenarios included: (1) anthropogenic land-use changes including roads and agricultural/urban expansion; (2) reduction or improvement in wildlife law enforcement measures; (3) changes in populations of natural predators and migratory alternative prey; and (4) increases in rainfall as predicted for East Africa. The factor causing the greatest risk of rapid declines in female giraffe abundance in our simulations was a reduction in law enforcement leading to more poaching. Other threats decreased abundances of giraffes, but improving law enforcement in both of the study area's protected areas mitigated these impacts: a 0.01 increase in giraffe survival probability from improved law enforcement mitigated a 25% rise in heavy rainfall events by increasing abundance 19%, and mitigated the expansion of towns and blockage of dispersal movements by increasing abundance 22%. Our IBM enabled us to further quantify fine-scale abundance changes among female giraffe social communities, revealing potential source-sink interactions within the metapopulation. This flexible methodology can be adapted to test additional ecological questions in this landscape, or to model populations of giraffes or other species in different ecosystems.

Quantifying shrub encroachment through soil seed bank analysis in the Ethiopian highlands.

This study aimed to understand the impact of shrub encroachment on native species in the Guassa Community Conservation Area in Ethiopia. We assessed the soil seed bank composition and density across different elevations and aspects, and management systems within the area. The vegetation was stratified and eight blocks were selected across a range of elevation (<3350 m and >3350 m) and aspect (northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest). Within each block we established twenty 5m x 5m plots for a total of 160. We then collected soil samples from five subplots (1 m x 1 m) at three depths (0-3 cm, 3-6 cm and 6-9 cm) for a total of 480 samples, which were established in pots in greenhouse. We calculated species abundance by totaling the number of seedlings that emerged from each sample. To determine the variability in the abundance of Festuca macrophylla and Helichrysum splendidum in the soil seed bank along altitudinal gradient, we used two-way ANOVA using SAS statistical software version 9.0.1. Shannon diversity index was used to determine species diversity in the soil seedbank. After counting all the seeds, we identified 74 plant species represented in the soil seedbank which belong to 55 genera and 23 families. Eleven species are endemic to Ethiopia. At the lower elevation range, the effects of aspect (P <0.0088) and soil depth (P <0.005) are not significant to determine the abundance of seeds of H. splendidum and F. macrophylla. But when the factors are segregated, both aspect and soil depth play a significant role (p<0.0001) regarding the abundance of the seeds of the competing species at lower elevation. At higher elevation, only the effect of soil depth is significant (P<0.0001) for determining the abundance of H. splendidum. Soil depth and aspect have no significant effects on soil seed bank abundance at this elevation.

Influence of Aspect and Elevational Gradients on The Regeneration of Festuca Macrophylla and Helicrysum Spelindidum Plant Species in Gcca, Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Natural regeneration is an important process that ensures the flow genes and thus preserves the diversity of life in ecosystems. However, natural regeneration is constrained by many factors including biotic, climatic and edaphic factors. The aim of this work was to assess the effects of aspect and elevational gradient on the natural regeneration potential of two competing species in Guassa Community Conservation Area in North Central Ethiopian highlands. We stratified our study area into eight blocks based on aspect and elevational gradient and conducted shrub removal experiment on 160 plots (5m x 5m). From these plots, we conducted vegetation survey following the modified Braun-Blanquette methods every three months. We used two elevational (&lt;3350 m/lower and &gt;3350 m/upper elevation) and four aspect categories (northeast, northwest, southwest and southeast) to compare the seeding density of the target species and species composition studies. On these plots, all vascular plants were recorded and the data was analyzed by two-way ANOVA using SAS statistical software version 9.0.1. In addition, we used LSD test for mean separation test. We computed the similarities in composition, density, abundance and species similarity between soil seedbank and the aboveground vegetation. Results showed that a total of 31 species, representing 27 genera and 16 families were recorded. The families with the highest number of species were Asteraceae (18 species, 22.5%), Fabaceae (3 species, 10%), and Poaceae (3 species, 10%). Of the total families, the dicots constituted 87.5% and monocots 12.5%. Species abundance was negatively correlated with elevation, with fewer species occurring at higher elevation. Meanwhile, species abundance was positively correlated with both northwest and northeast aspect. Treatments done during the study also highly influenced the recovery of vegetation species. High species similarity was also observed between below and aboveground vegetation.

Home range, habitat use, and activity patterns of African wolves (Canis lupaster) in the Ethiopian highlands

African wolves (Canis lupaster) and Ethiopian wolves (C. simensis) occur often sympatrically across habitats in the Ethiopian Highlands, with recent studies finding evidence for interspecific competition. However, unlike the well-studied Ethiopian wolf, comparatively little is known about the ecology of the African wolf in the Ethiopian Highlands. To address this empirical gap, we collected data on home range size, habitat use, and activity patterns of radio-collared African wolves at the Guassa Menz Community Conservation Area (GCCA) and Borena Saynt Worehimenu National Park (BSNP). We followed the African wolves (5 in GCCA, 6 in BSNP) for 16 months and had 659 ± 83 encounters with each individual. The mean 95% kernel density estimate home range size of African wolves was higher in BSNP (4.5 ± 1.5 km2) than at GCCA (2.2 ± 0.7 km2). In 55% (n = 3934) of the encounters the wolves were found to be solitary, whereas in other encounters we found them in groups of two to seven. At both sites, the African wolves were more often found in areas close to human settlements than in more intact habitat, and they were mainly active at dawn and dusk. These results show flexibility in African wolf socioecology in response to habitat fragmentation and anthropogenic disturbance. We recommend further studies on major causes of spatial and temporal niche partitioning of Ethiopian wolves and African wolves in the Ethiopian Highlands.

Species composition, relative abundance and habitat association of non-volant small mammals in Menz Guassa Community Conservation Area, central Ethiopia

Small mammals are a diverse group of animals and studying such group is vital. This study documents species composition, relative abundance and habitat association of non-volant small mammals in Menz Guassa Community Conservation Area, central Ethiopia. Data were collected using capture mark-release technique in different habitats of the study area from October 2019 to August 2020 and analysed by descriptive statistics and Shannon-Wiener diversity index. A total of 724 individuals of rodents and insectivores were sampled over 1176 trap nights. Of these 418 individuals were newly captured while the remaining 306 were recaptured with an overall trap success of 35.5 %. Five species of rodents namely Lophuromys flavopunctatus, Stenocephalemys griseicauda, Otomys typu s, Arvicanthis blicki and Dendromus lovati , and two species of insectivores, Crocidura baileyi and C. thalia were sampled. The most abundant species identified in the study was L. flavopunctatus followed by S. griseicauda , while the least was D. lovati with relative abundances of 66.7 %, 14.8 % and 0.2 %, respectively. The rodent and insectivore species were statistically significantly associated with their habitats (χ 2 = 10.44, df = 3, p < 0.05) with high association recorded in Euryops habitat 128 (30.6 %). High diversity of small mammals was recorded in Erica-Festuca dominated habitat (H’ = 1.176) followed by Festuca-Euryops habitat (H’= 1.114) and the least was recorded in Festuca habitats (H’= 0.977). Small mammals showed variation in abundance across habitats between seasons but the difference was not statistically significant (F (1, 6) = 0.017, p > 0.05). Most of the rodents and insectivores were sampled during the night. Stenocephalemys griseicauda , D. lovati and C. baileyi were exclusively nocturnal while O. typus and L. flavopunctatus were predominantly diurnal in activity. There was relatively higher small mammal diversity in Menz Guassa Community Conservation Area. Further molecular study needs to be conducted to identify more non-volant small mammals in the area, more especially cryptic species.

Collaborative agent-based modeling for managing shrub encroachment in an Afroalpine grassland

We co-designed an agent-based model of an Afroalpine grassland in Ethiopia that is experiencing unwanted shrub encroachment. The goal was to enable managers of a community conservation area to better understand the drivers of shrub encroachment and to test possible management actions for controlling shrubs. Due to limited site-specific data, we parameterized this model using insights from published literature, remote sensing, and expert opinion from scientists and local managers. We therefore sought to explore potential future scenarios rather than make highly accurate predictions, focusing on facilitating discussions and learning among the diverse co-management team. We evaluated three social-ecological scenarios with our model, examining: (1) the impact of changing precipitation regimes on vegetation, (2) whether changing the frequency of guassa grass harvests would improve the long-term sustainability of the grassland, and (3) whether the combination of grass harvest and shrub removal would affect shrub encroachment. We found that the model was highly sensitive to the amount of grass harvested each year for local use. Our results indicate that the guassa grass was more resilient than shrubs during persistent dry climatic conditions, whereas a reduction in only the early spring rains (known as the “belg”) resulted in considerable loss of grass biomass. While our modeling results lacked the quantitative specificity desired by managers, participants in the collaborative modeling process learned new approaches to planning and management of the conservation area and expanded their knowledge of the ecological complexity of the system. Several participants used the model as a boundary object, interpreting it in ways that reinforced their cultural values and goals for the conservation area. Our work highlights the lack of detailed scientific knowledge of Afroalpine ecosystems, and urges managers to reconnect with traditional ecological management of the conservation area in their pursuit of shrub encroachment solutions. The decline or absence of the belg rains is becoming increasingly common in the Ethiopian highlands, and our results underscore the need for more widespread understanding of how this changing climatic regime impacts local environmental management. This work lays a foundation for social-ecological research to improve both understanding and management of these highly threatened ecosystems.

Stakeholders' Perceptions of the Outcomes of Translocated Eland in Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia

Translocation of wildlife species from one area to another is a conservation tool that contributes to the restoration of depleted populations, augments declining populations, or establishes of new populations. This paper documents one of the first studies examining in detail stakeholders' perceptions of the factors influencing the outcomes of translocations of wildlife into a community conservation area, using the case of eland (Taurotragus oryx) translocations into the Nyae Nyae Conservancy in Namibia. The translocations took place between 2000 and 2005 as part of the national community-based natural resource management programme and were monitored through annual waterpoint counts. These data on perceptions were collected through a household survey and focused group discussions involving community members and leaders and key informant interviews with external stakeholders. Community members' perceptions could not confirm that the translocated eland decreased or increased, however, reflected that eland individuals moved away from the release site soon after translocation to more distant locations further away from human settlements. The outcomes of the translocations were perceived to be most strongly associated with anthropogenic factors compared to habitat or environmental factors. However, stakeholders exhibited divergent perceptions regarding which of the anthropogenic factors was of most importance, particularly with respect to the roles of the different types of hunting, and to a lesser degree, the role of traditional burning of landscapes on translocation outcomes. The paper illustrates the complexities associated with translocations of wildlife into community conservation areas compared to state protected areas, given the strong influence of human disturbances on translocation success. It highlights the importance of understanding the social factors influencing how and why translocated individuals may adapt well or poorly to their new environment. Building this understanding is essential to improving the outcomes of similar translocations in the future.

Why the Convivial Conservation Vision Needs Complementing to be a Viable Alternative for Conservation in the Global South

Convivial conservation is presented as an anti-capitalist approach and alternative to current mainstream conservation as well as proposals for ‘half-earth’ and ‘new conservation’ approaches. This paper reviews these approaches and situates them in the global South conservation and development context. Using the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem in Tanzania as a case study, it examines elements of the convivial conservation vision in relation to three critical conservation problems: path dependencies of state conservation agencies; heavy reliance on tourism revenue; and political interests in community conservation areas. The analysis draws on empirical data obtained from published studies and extensive field-based research by the first author in the study area. It demonstrates that while the convivial conservation approach may be considered a radical and plausible alternative to the ‘half earth’ and new conservation proposals, its implementation in the global South will remain challenging in the face of the existing conservation problems. The paper suggests a socio-ecological justice approach that complements the convivial conservation vision through a systemic incorporation of the rights and responsibilities of different conservation stakeholders from the perspective of procedural, recognition, distributive, and environmental justice.

Creating Community Conservation Areas and Sustainable Livelihood Options at Nkwichi Lodge, Lake Malawi, Mozambique

Abstract Nkwichi is a 14-bed lodge located on the shores of Lake Malawi. The lodge has collaborated with 16 communities to establish the 120,000 hectare Manda Wilderness Community Conservation Area of Mozambique. The lodge supports 40 permanent local employees, and represents the only formal employment available in the area. Nkwichi has facilitated a halt to hunting in the reserve, sustainable agriculture initiatives and the application of solar power for electricity. Information Snyman, S. and Spenceley, A. (2019) Private Sector Tourism in Conservation Areas in Africa, CABI © CAB International 2022

Over 80% of Africa's savannah conservation land is failing or deteriorating according to lions as an indicator species

AbstractCalls to increase the global area under protection for conservation assume existing conservation areas are effective but, without adequate investment, they may not be. We collected survey data from expert respondents on perceived budgets, management, and threats for 516 protected areas and community conservation areas in savannah Africa to create a Conservation Area Performance Index. Combining this index with an indicative biodiversity outcome—population status of African lion, Panthera leo—we found that 82% of the sampled area was in a state of failure or deterioration, with only 10% in a state of success or recovery. A large proportion of succeeding or recovering conservation areas received external support through collaborative management partnerships. That Africa's current conservation area network—the foundation of conservation efforts—is crumbling complicates proposed strategies to protect additional land. We contend that investing in the effective management of existing conservation areas—potentially through well‐structured collaborative management partnerships—should be prioritized urgently.

Human activities increase vigilance, movement and home range size of the endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) at the cost of foraging and resting

Behavioral responses in wildlife due to human activities may often go unnoticed but have significant effects on population viability. This is a particular concern with endangered species characterized by small population sizes. From June 2016 to May 2017, we measured the effects of human activities on daily the activity budget and home range size of mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni ), an endemic antelope of the Ethiopian highlands. We tracked two groups of mountain nyala from two study sites that differ in the level of human activities; Adaba-Dodola Community Conservation Area (Adaba-Dodola CCA) and Arsi Mountains National Park (Arsi Mountains NP). Our results showed that the time spent on vigilance and movement was dramatically higher in Adaba-Dodola Community CCA, where human presence is significant, than in Arsi Mountains NP, whereas the opposite was true for time spent foraging and resting. In addition, mean home range size (95% KDE) was significantly larger for the Adaba-Dodola CCA group (13 ± 7.4 km 2 ) than for the Arsi Mountains NP group (6.3 ± 2.7 km 2 ) covering larger areas during the dry season (18.7 ± 6.9 km 2 ) than the wet season (4.9 ± 1.0 km 2 ). The finding that increased investment in vigilance and movement trade-off against the restorative behaviors of foraging and resting in human-disturbed areas have implications for conservation managements; specifically, it underscores the need to (i) establish the fitness consequences of behavioral changes, and (ii) monitoring behavioral change in the disturbed population with the aim of bringing it closer to the undisturbed baseline. The study highlights the importance of protected areas, limiting human activities and monitoring the behavioral change of endangered species in human-disturbed areas. • Mountain nyala spent more time on vigilance and movement at the cost of restorative behaviors in high human impact areas. • High human activities lead to significantly larger home range size of mountain nyala. • The study highlights the importance of limiting human activities and monitoring behavioral changes in endangered species.

Marginalized Groups of Gelada (Theropithecus gelada) Living in and around the Highly Disturbed Mount Guna Community Conservation Area, Northwest Ethiopia

Gelada (Theropithecus gelada) is the only surviving primate of the genus Theropithecus that is endemic to Ethiopia. It adapted to live in afroalpine and subafroalpine ecosystems of the Ethiopian alpine. Although it is at risk of habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and deforestation, gelada has been classified as a least concern by the IUCN. Gelada has great importance as it represents the Ethiopian national treasure which brings tourists to the country. However, no proper gelada census has been carried out in and around Mount Guna (Mt. Guna). Therefore, the current study aimed to provide an accurate count of gelada individuals living in the study area. Total count along line transects was carried out from January 1–May 30, 2018, to estimate the population of gelada. According to the current result, gelada individuals counted from the entire sites of Mt. Guna were estimated to be 56. Forty-two gelada individuals were counted from outside the protected area, while 14 of them were from the protected area. There was a significant difference between gelada individuals counted from inside and outside the protected areas (P = 0.047). The ratio of age-sex of geladas also computed to be adult males: adult females: subadult males: subadult females: immature is 1 : 3.12 : 0.88 : 1.25 : 0.75 for the total population. Furthermore, five groups of geladas were observed outside the Mt. Guna community conservation area at three sites, while only one group of geladas was identified from the protected area. Based on the current result, we recommend further research to study the population trend, fertility problems, and conservation mechanisms of geladas living within the agricultural land and human-gelada conflicts around Mt. Guna.

Genetic diversity of the Ankober Serin (Crithagra ankoberensis) at Simien Mountains National Park and Guassa Community Conservation Area, Ethiopia

The genetic diversity of the Ethiopian endemic Ankober Serin Crithagra ankoberensis was studied in two populations at Simien Mountains National Park and Guassa Community Conservation Area using five microsatellite markers. Blood samples were taken from 16 and 14 birds, respectively. Three molecular markers resulted in relatively low, though noticeable differences between the two populations. The analysis also showed the presence of shared alleles, indicating current gene flow between the two populations. Two markers from Simien Mountains National Park and two markers from Guassa Community Conservation Area revealed obvious deviations from the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. We interpret these deviations in both populations as limited population size and restricted gene flow. The genetic differentiation between the two populations thus could be explained by their geographical separation (more than 360 km), reinforced by barriers, such as steep mountains, deep valleys and extensive plains (isolation by distance). On the other hand, a stepping-stone mechanism between geographically intermediate populations across small distances might explain the observed gene flow. Further studies are needed to better reconstruct the biogeographic history and conservation needs of the Ankober Serin populations in Ethiopia.

Indigenous knowledge and the shackles of wilderness

The environmental crises currently gripping the Earth have been codified in a new proposed geological epoch: the Anthropocene. This epoch, according to the Anthropocene Working Group, began in the mid-20th century and reflects the “great acceleration” that began with industrialization in Europe [J. Zalasiewicz et al., Anthropocene 19, 55–60 (2017)]. Ironically, European ideals of protecting a pristine “wilderness,” free from the damaging role of humans, is still often heralded as the antidote to this human-induced crisis [J. E. M. Watson et al., Nature, 563, 27–30 (2018)]. Despite decades of critical engagement by Indigenous and non-Indigenous observers, large international nongovernmental organizations, philanthropists, global institutions, and nation-states continue to uphold the notion of pristine landscapes as wilderness in conservation ideals and practices. In doing so, dominant global conservation policy and public perceptions still fail to recognize that Indigenous and local peoples have long valued, used, and shaped “high-value” biodiverse landscapes. Moreover, the exclusion of people from many of these places under the guise of wilderness protection has degraded their ecological condition and is hastening the demise of a number of highly valued systems. Rather than denying Indigenous and local peoples’ agency, access rights, and knowledge in conserving their territories, we draw upon a series of case studies to argue that wilderness is an inappropriate and dehumanizing construct, and that Indigenous and community conservation areas must be legally recognized and supported to enable socially just, empowering, and sustainable conservation across scale.