Community-based Wildlife Management Research Articles

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WILDLIFE TO PEOPLE’S LIVELIHOODS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Wildlife has the potential to support people’s livelihoods and economic development in many African countries. The objective of the review was to evaluate the potential contribution of wildlife to people’s livelihoods and economic development in Africa. Several databases were searched to identify articles that have explored the contributions of wildlife to people’s livelihoods and economic development. The results indicate that wildlife contributes both consumptive and non-consumptive resources towards people’s livelihoods, with bush meat being the greatest consumptive contribution and employment the greatest non-consumptive contribution. Revenue collected from tourists, trophy hunting, and game viewing have been used for infrastructure and rural development. However, wildlife has declined in many African countries due to land redistribution, drought, habitat fragmentation, human population growth, and illegal hunting. Setting up law enforcement agents and creating community-based wildlife management could restore the benefits of wildlife.

Human and Wildlife Co-existence in Mbomipa, Iringa, Tanzania: Is it a Long-lasting and Equitable Equilibrium?

Matumizi Bora ya Malihai Idodi na Pawaga (Mbomipa) is among the community-based wildlife management approaches (WMA) within the Ruaha-Rungwa Ecosystem. The major purpose is to promote wildlife conservation among communities living adjacent to the ecosystem. This study was conducted around MBOMIPA in four villages of Tungamalenga, Mapogoro (in Idodi Division), Itunundu and Kinyika (in Pawaga Division) to assess the effectiveness of the approach in biodiversity conservation and its contribution to local communities’ livelihoods. Data were collected through questionnaire survey, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0. The results showed that there was a significant difference (Chi-square; p<0.05) in responses towards community awareness on biodiversity activities and their contribution to biodiversity conservation; whereby the majority of the respondents were aware of biodiversity conservation.. The study found that majority of the respondents participated in conservation activities through reporting illegal activities, rescuing animals, scaring animals, tree planting and anti-poaching control. Furthermore, the study found that local communities benefited from the MBOMIPA WMA, although their primary source of income was linked to agricultural activities. Revenue and employment opportunities obtained from investors were among the benefits local community gained. The study concludes that it is important to involve communities in the management of wildlife within their localities. Finally, the study is contribution towards understanding functioning of the wildlife management areas in the face of increasing human population associated with economic activities such as agriculture and pastoralism.

Wild meat trade over the last 45 years in the Peruvian Amazon.

The trade in wild meat is an important economic component of rural people's livelihoods, but it has been perceived to be among the main causes of the decline of wildlife species. Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light an additional concern of wildlife markets as a major human-health challenge. We analyzed data from the largest longitudinal monitoring (1973-2018) of the most important urban wild-meat markets in Iquitos, Peru, to examine the trends in and impacts of these markets on people's livelihoods. Over the last 45 years, wild meat sales increased at a rate of 6.4 t/year (SD 2.17), paralleling urban population growth. Wild meat sales were highest in 2018 (442 t), contributing US$2.6 million (0.76%) to the regional gross domestic product. Five species of ungulates and rodents accounted for 88.5% of the amount of biomass traded. Vulnerable and Endangered species represented 7.0% and 0.4% of individuals sold, respectively. Despite growth in sales, the contribution of wild meat to overall urban diet was constant: 1-2%/year of total meat consumed. This result was due to greater availability and higher consumption of cheaper meats (e.g., in 2018, poultry was 45.8% cheaper and was the most consumed meat) coupled with the lack of economic incentives to harvest wild meat species in rural areas. Most wild meat was sold salted or smoked, reducing the likelihood of foodborne diseases. Community-based wildlife management plans and the continued trade bans on primates and threatened taxa may avoid biodiversity loss. Considering the recent COVID-19 pandemic, future management plans should include potential viral hosts and regulation and enforcement of hygiene practices in wild-meat markets.

PARK-PEOPLE CONFLICT IN BANGLADESH: A CASE STUDY FROM CHUNATI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND DUDHPUKURIA-DHOPACHORI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Conflict between people and wildlife is a foremost issue for conservation which is hard to solve when the wants of people collide in a straight line with the needs of endangered species like wild elephant. This study was carried out in the adjoining villages of two protected areas (PAs) of Chittagong region namely Dudupukuria-Dhopachori Wildlife Sanctuary (DDWS) and Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS) to identify the attitude of the villagers to the PAs by measuring different received benefits and faced problems from those reserves, the interaction between human and wild elephants and the opinions of the villagers to the effectiveness of community based wildlife management. The data were collected through a quantitative household survey which includes a series of close ended, fixed response and simple questions. Crop depredation was identified as a major problem to the villagers and they received small amount of benefits for the conservation program through protected area which create negative attitude among them to the PAs. Though most of the people were willing to participate in community based conservation program, they didnot think that such kind of approach is effective to protect biodiversity in the PAs. The present study makes the recommendation to build positive attitude to the PAs, to minimize the conflict, helps in future planning programs and further research of this field.

Women, wellbeing and Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania

ABSTRACT Community-based wildlife management claims pro-poor, gender-sensitive outcomes. However, intersectional political ecology predicts adverse impacts on marginalised people. Our large-scale quantitative approach draws out common patterns and differentiated ways women are affected by Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). This first large-scale, rigorous evaluation studies WMA impacts on livelihoods and wellbeing of 937 married women in 42 villages across six WMAs and matched controls in Northern and Southern Tanzania. While WMAs bring community infrastructure benefits, most women have limited political participation, and experience resource use restrictions and fear of wildlife attacks. Wealth and region are important determinants, with the poorest worst impacted.

Causes of domestic livestock–wild herbivore conflicts in the alpine ecosystem of the Chang Tang Plateau

Studying the causes of human–wildlife conflicts is important for reducing these conflicts. Human–wildlife conflicts can be divided into wild carnivore- and wild herbivore-related conflicts. Compared with carnivore-related conflicts, herbivore-related conflicts such as domestic livestock–wild herbivore conflicts (LHCs) have not been adequately studied, and there is scarce information on LHC intensity, causes, and impacts. LHCs frequently and extensively occur in the alpine ecosystem of the Chang Tang Plateau, China. Herbivorous wildlife competes with livestock for forage and habitat, which degrades the ecosystem, influences community livelihood, and decreases residents’ tolerance of wildlife. This study analyzed LHC causes in this plateau by focusing on forage competition, wild herbivore habitat and grazing land overlap using a comprehensive carrying capacity analysis method and niche Maxent model by integrating field surveys, statistical data, and remote sensing data. By integrating the domestic livestock with herbivorous wildlife into carrying capacity analysis, the stocking rate was 110%, which was 10% over the carrying capacity threshold. Overlap between wild herbivore habitat and domestic livestock grazing land was high, with Tibetan antelope ranging in 88% of the grazing land and domestic livestock grazing activities in 39.2% of Tibetan antelope habitat. Pasture fencing aggravated LHCs by fragmenting herbivore habitats and obstructing Tibetan antelope migration routes. LHCs in this plateau could be mitigated by extending the existing wildlife-related damage compensation scheme to cover wild herbivore-related damages, optimizing pasture fencing layout, diversifying community livelihood, and popularizing community-based wildlife management.

From conflict to collaboration: the contribution of co-management in mitigating conflicts in Mole National Park, Ghana

AbstractFew studies exist about the extent to which co-management in protected areas contributes to conflict prevention or mitigation and at what level of the conflicts such collaborative efforts are possible. Following varying degrees of conflict, Mole National Park, Ghana, embarked on a collaborative community-based wildlife management programme in 2000. Using Glasl's conflict escalation model, we analysed the contribution of co-management to mitigating and preventing conflicts from escalating. We conducted a total of 22 interviews with local traditional leaders, Park officials and local government officials, and 26 focus group discussions with farmers, hunters, women and representatives of co-management boards, selected from 10 of the 33 communities surrounding the Park. Our findings indicate that co-management can help mitigate or prevent conflicts from escalating when conflicting parties engage with each other in a transparent manner using deliberative processes such as negotiation, mediation and the use of economic incentives. It is, however, difficult to resolve conflicts through co-management when dialogue between conflicting parties breaks down, as parties take entrenched positions and are unwilling to compromise on their core values and interests. We conclude that although co-management contributes to successful conflict management, factors such as understanding the context of the conflicts, including the underlying sources and manifestations of the conflict, incorporating local knowledge, and ensuring open dialogue, trust and transparency between conflicting parties are key to attaining sustainable conflict management in protected areas.

Assessment of mammal reproduction for hunting sustainability through community-based sampling of species in the wild.

Wildlife subsistence hunting is a major source of protein for tropical rural populations and a prominent conservation issue. The intrinsic rate of natural increase. (rmax ) of populations is a key reproductive parameter in the most used assessments of hunting sustainability. However, researchers face severe difficulties in obtaining reproductive data in the wild, so these assessments often rely on classic reproductive rates calculated mostly from studies of captive animals conducted 30 years ago. The result is a flaw in almost 50% of studies, which hampers management decision making. We conducted a 15-year study in the Amazon in which we used reproductive data from the genitalia of 950 hunted female mammals. Genitalia were collected by local hunters. We examined tissue from these samples to estimate birthrates for wild populations of the 10 most hunted mammals. We compared our estimates with classic measures and considered the utility of the use of rmax in sustainability assessments. For woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii) and tapir (Tapirus terrestris), wild birthrates were similar to those from captive populations, whereas birthrates for other ungulates and lowland-paca (Cuniculus paca) were significantly lower than previous estimates. Conversely, for capuchin monkeys (Sapajus macrocephalus), agoutis (Dasyprocta sp.), and coatis (Nasua nasua), our calculated reproductive rates greatly exceeded often-used values. Researchers could keep applying classic measures compatible with our estimates, but for other species previous estimates of rmax may not be appropriate. We suggest that data from local studies be used to set hunting quotas. Our maximum rates of population growth in the wild correlated with body weight, which suggests that our method is consistent and reliable. Integration of this method into community-based wildlife management and the training of local hunters to record pregnancies in hunted animals could efficiently generate useful information of life histories of wild species and thus improve management of natural resources.

Line Transect Surveys Underdetect Terrestrial Mammals: Implications for the Sustainability of Subsistence Hunting.

Conservation of Neotropical game species must take into account the livelihood and food security needs of local human populations. Hunting management decisions should therefore rely on abundance and distribution data that are as representative as possible of true population sizes and dynamics. We simultaneously applied a commonly used encounter-based method and an infrequently used sign-based method to estimate hunted vertebrate abundance in a 48,000-km2 indigenous landscape in southern Guyana. Diurnal direct encounter data collected during three years along 216, four-kilometer -long transects consistently under-detected many diurnal and nocturnal mammal species readily detected through sign. Of 32 species analyzed, 31 were detected by both methods; however, encounters did not detect one and under-detected another 12 of the most heavily hunted species relative to sign, while sign under-detected 12 never or rarely collected species relative to encounters. The six most important game animals in the region, all ungulates, were not encountered at 11–40% of village and control sites or on 29–72% of transects where they were detected by sign. Using the sign methodology, we find that tapirs, one of the terrestrial vertebrates considered most sensitive to overexploitation, are present at many sites where they were never visually detected during distance sampling. We find that this is true for many other species as well. These high rates of under-detection suggest that behavioral changes in hunted populations may affect apparent occurrence and abundance of these populations. Accumulation curves (detection of species on transects) were much steeper for sign for 12 of 16 hunted species than for encounters, but that pattern was reversed for 12 of 16 species unhunted in our area. We conclude that collection of sign data is an efficient and effective method of monitoring hunted vertebrate populations that complements encounter and camera-trapping methods in areas impacted by hunting. Sign surveys may be the most viable method for large-scale, management-oriented studies in remote areas, particularly those focused on community-based wildlife management.

Community Participation in Wildlife Conservation and Protection in Oban Hills Area of Cross River State, Nigeria

This paper examines the nature and extent of Community-based Wife Management in Oban Hills sector, home to the Cross Rivers National Park, Nigeria. Community-based Wildlife Management (CWM) approach has been identified as an effective ethical way of integrating the goals of wildlife conservation with the needs of the rural poor in the tropics. CWM is premised on the notions that the stewardship over wildlife resides at the local rather than the state level, and that it is possible to improve rural livelihood, conserve the environment and promote economic growth at the same time. The Cross Rivers National Park (CRNP) located at Oban Hills, Nigeria, was created by the Federal Government in 1991. Indepth Interviews, Key Informant Interviews and the survey method were used to collect data. Five villages/ communities were selected pursively based on their proximity to the park and simple random sampling applied to select research participants. Findings from this research indicate that; community leaders and the youth play key roles of educating their members on the importance of wildlife conservation and guarding their forests from poachers respectively; they do not derive significant benefits from wildlife conservation efforts by the Federal Government; the implementation of laws prohibiting hunting in the protected area and harvesting of conserved animal species in forests in the buffer zone has negatively affected the livelihood of heads of households and male youth who were great hunters. This has inflamed feelings of neglect, deprivation and alienation which has generated different forms of conflicts between members of the communities and rangers of the Cross River National Park. The authors are of the opinion that Community institutions enforcing taboos and totem related to killing and eating of wildlife and non-governmental organizations or conservation societies, community leaders and youth should be strengthened and officially recognized as partners who derive significant benefits from wildlife management in Oban Hills, Nigeria.

Hunting and trading bushmeat in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania: motivations, cost-benefit ratios and meat prices

SUMMARYBushmeat hunting in the savannah biomes of East Africa is often considered to be subsistence oriented and undertaken as a gap-filler in the lean agricultural season. The price of bushmeat is furthermore often thought uniform regardless of species, but if hunting is commercially oriented and price premiums are paid for particular species this needs to be considered. This paper investigates these issues in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania, based on one year of market data and interviews with 80 hunters, 169 traders and 67 retailers. Motivations were overwhelmingly commercial and the bushmeat trade constituted a year-round income generating activity. Monte Carlo simulations based on the deterrence model revealed average cost-benefit ratios of 0.15–0.43 for hunters, 0.56–0.62 for traders and 0.88 for retailers, and a 12–401 fold increase in likelihood of apprehension may be required to render the trade unprofitable. Willingness-to-pay data showed that elephant, buffalo, hippopotamus, puku, bushpig and warthog meat were preferred. Enhanced enforcement may thus drive prices for these species higher, encouraging hunters to seek ways around constraints. Community-based wildlife management and improved firearms control may be the most pragmatic ways to regulate the trade.

The community resource management area mechanism: a strategy to manage African forest resources for REDD+

Climate change poses a significant threat to Africa, and deforestation rates have increased in recent years. Mitigation initiatives such as REDD+ are widely considered as potentially efficient ways to generate emission reductions (or removals), conserve or sustainably manage forests, and bring benefits to communities, but effective implementation models are lacking. This paper presents the case of Ghana's Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) mechanism, an innovative natural resource governance and landscape-level planning tool that authorizes communities to manage their natural resources for economic and livelihood benefits. This paper argues that while the CREMA was originally developed to facilitate community-based wildlife management and habitat protection, it offers a promising community-based structure and process for managing African forest resources for REDD+. At a theoretical level, it conforms to the ecological, socio-cultural and economic factors that drive resource-users’ decision process and practices. And from a practical mitigation standpoint, the CREMA has the potential to help solve many of the key challenges for REDD+ in Africa, including definition of boundaries, smallholder aggregation, free prior and informed consent, ensuring permanence, preventing leakage, clarifying land tenure and carbon rights, as well as enabling equitable benefit-sharing arrangements. Ultimately, CREMA's potential as a forest management and climate change mitigation strategy that generates livelihood benefits for smallholder farmers and forest users will depend upon the willingness of African governments to support the mechanism and give it full legislative backing, and the motivation of communities to adopt the CREMA and integrate democratic decision-making and planning with their traditional values and natural resource management systems.

Using temporary dye marks to estimate ungulate population abundance in southwest Yukon, Canada

We describe the protocols of two mark-resight abundance surveys, using temporary dye-marks, for the Aishihik woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) and wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) populations (herds) in the southwest Yukon Territory, Canada. We also provide recommendations based on experiences from these surveys for biologists and managers considering this approach. The Aishihik woodland caribou herd was the focus of intensive management in the 1990s aimed at recovering the herd. Following recovery activities, a target size of 2000 animals was determined and the Champagne-Aishihik Traditional Territory Community-Based Wildlife Management Plan recommended an estimate of the herd’s size be completed before the year 2013. We used an aerial mark-resight approach to estimate the herd’s size in March 2009. Caribou (n = 59) were marked from a helicopter with temporary dye, delivered via a CO2-powered rifle. Two independent resighting sessions were subsequently carried out via helicopter. The herd was estimated at 2044 animals (90% CI: 1768 – 2420) with an overall resighting rate of 0.47. The mean annual growth rate (λ) of the herd from 1997 – 2009 was 1.05 (SE = 0.01). The Aishihik wood bison herd was estimated at 1151 (90% CI: 998 – 1355). Our study suggests that ungulates temporarily marked with dye can be successfully used to obtain statistically sound population estimates.

The Spatial Patterns of Miskitu Hunting in Northeastern Honduras: Lessons for Wildlife Management in Tropical Forests

El siguiente artículo presenta los patrones espaciales de la cacería indígena en dos comunidades Miskitu en el noreste de Honduras. La caza fue documentada a través de cuestionarios locales, mientras que las zonas de caza fueron registradas por medio de mapeo participativo, mapeo de campo y entrevistas. Durante diez semanas, 58 cazadores capturaron 1,607 kg de animales dentro de una zona delimitada de 336 km 2 . Tres sub-zonas pudieron ser distinguidas en base a diferentes tipos de hábitat, especies y cantidades cazadas, así como las estrategias y herramientas empleadas. La conservación de la fauna se podría beneficiar de la integración de tales patrones espaciales en sus modelos existentes. La investigación participativa provee, desde el inicio, una oportunidad de involucrar a los habitantes locales en el desarrollo de programas comunitarios de manejo de vida silvestre.

Current challenges for addressing poverty alleviation via vicuña management in Andean countries

Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) are South American camelids, the commercial use of which has untapped poverty alleviation potential. Vicuña fibre is produced by extremely low income communities that inhabit the harsh environment of the high Andes in Argentina, Chile, Peru and Bolivia. At the other end of the world, affluent consumers are willing to pay high prices for apparel made of vicuña fibre. Vicuña management projects follow the logic of community-based wildlife management. The rationale for vicuña conservation through sustainable use is that commercial utilization of fibre obtained from live-shorn individuals will generate sufficient economic benefits to outweigh the costs of conservation, and contribute to community development and poverty alleviation. However, while conservation efforts have been extremely successful with vicuñas having recovered from the brink of extinction, the socio-economic achievements have thus far proved modest. Most such benefits are being captured by traders and international textile companies, rather than by local communities. In addition, the high market value of vicuña fibre has attracted a number of groups interested in its production. This threatens the conservation of this wild species, the exclusive rights of Andean communities and could undermine the spirit of the Vicuña Convention. This paper explores multiple-objective projects that address vicuña conservation and poverty alleviation and analyses the challenges that limit a more equitable distribution of benefits among stakeholders.

Household Consumption and Natural Resource Management around National Parks in Zambia

ABSTRACT Game Management Areas in Zambia aim to combine nature conservation with economic empowerment of rural households. This study determines the impact of community-based wildlife management and participation in related community institutions on household welfare. The results indicate that the gains from living in Game Management Areas and from participating in natural resource management are large but unevenly distributed. Only Game Management Areas with limited alternative livelihoods exhibit significant consumption benefits. However, the gains accrue mainly to the relatively well off, while the poor do not gain even if they participate. The results also show that infrastructure development does not necessarily translate into household level consumption gains in the short run. The design of community-based natural resource management programmes needs to respond to the inherent diversity among both the national parks and the community members. There is a need to address impediments to effective participation by the majority of the community members.

Vicuña conservation and poverty alleviation? Andean communities and international fibre markets

Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) fiber is produced by extremely low-income communities that inhabit the harsh environment of the Andes in Argentina, Chile, Peru and Bolivia. At the other end of the social scale, affluent consumers are willing to pay high prices for vicuna-made accessories and clothes. Vicuna management projects follow the logic of community-based wildlife management. The rationale for seeking to conserve vicunas through sustainable use is that commercial utilization of the fiber (obtained from live-shorn animals) will generate sufficient economic benefits to outweigh the costs of conservation, and contribute to community development and poverty alleviation. However, although conservation efforts have been extremely successful with vicunas having recovered from the brink of extinction, the socio-economic achievements have thus far proved modest. This paper explores multiple-objective projects that address vicuna conservation and poverty alleviation in Andean countries. In doing so it analyses the tensions that exist between these objectives, as well as the factors that limit a more equitable distribution of benefits among stakeholders. Examples are drawn from vicuna management under common-property in Peru and Bolivia, and vicuna captive management under private property in Argentina. These case studies enable us to illustrate the complex relationship between local communities and the global market, and the importance of community enterprises and supportive government policy in managing a common pool resource.

Community-Based Wildlife Management: A Case Study of Sika Deer in Japan

The Japanese hunter population is declining, while human–wildlife conflicts (e.g., damage by overabundant sika deer) have become an issue in suburban and rural areas. Beginning in 2004, a community-based deer management program was initiated by a local nongovernmental organization in collaboration with stakeholders in Nishiokoppe Village, Hokkaido, Japan. The goal was to integrate deer management with a contribution to the local economy by attracting visitor hunters and to develop a hunter education program. For the first 3 years, 60 hunters made 136 visits, hunted 337 days, and harvested 280 deer, while 173 persons attended the hands-on hunter education programs that can help recruit younger hunters. The programs generated 191,000 USD during the years, providing employment for several local residents. We suggest that a combination of recreational hunting and hunter education in rural areas can promote community-based wildlife management in a highly developed and high density society where hunting participation is declining.

CAMPFIRE During Zimbabwe's National Crisis: Local Impacts and Broader Implications for Community-Based Wildlife Management

Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE program was an influential early effort to implement community-based wildlife management on a national scale. From its inception in 1989 through 2000, international donors provided substantial support, and researchers studied outcomes closely. In 2000, local CAMPFIRE projects began to feel the impact of two powerful external shocks: the end of international funding, and the beginning of Zimbabwe's severe political and economic crisis. These shocks created natural experiments in which hypotheses regarding variables affecting project outcomes can be tested. This article reports the results of case studies conducted in 2004 and 2006 of two previously highly regarded local projects. We found, in line with expectations, that quality of governance and community benefits in both sites have declined sharply. We also found, contrary to expectations, that project revenues and conservation benefits have been largely sustained. We discuss the implications of these results for theory and practice in community-based wildlife management.

Assessing the Prospects for Community-Based Wildlife Management: The Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschos chrysogaster) in Nepal

Community-based wildlife management has been the subject of debate in recent years. We argue for more ex ante assessments of community-based wildlife management to distinguish good prospects from poor ones. We develop a conceptual framework, the Collective Resource Management framework, to carry out such evaluations and apply it to a case study community in northeastern Nepal that involves live capture and extraction of musk from the endangered Himalayan musk deer (Moschos chrysogaster). We find that the case study presents a number of favorable conditions conducive to community-based wildlife management but with several serious limitations. For example, the Nepali government must be willing to allow this activity on a legal basis, because wildlife exploitation has not been allowed within national parks historically; however, there are signs this may be changing. More importantly, the presence of a strong tourism industry in the case study community makes alternative economic activities like musk extraction less attractive, in comparison to poorer regions of Nepal where there is no tourism. The Collective Resource Management evaluation approach shows promise as a structured method to check the viability of community-based wildlife management projects before they are initiated.