Community-based Forest Enterprises Research Articles

Relationship between community capitals and governance: The perspective of local actors in the Maya Biosphere Reserve

Internationally, the decentralization of forest management from central government control to collaborative stewardship by local communities is gaining popularity. Forest decentralization is seen as a means of promoting both conservation and community economic development while decreasing government agencies’ management burdens. However, not all community forest programs have been able to successfully achieve both forest conservation and socio-economic development. A growing body of literature identifies under what circumstances local groups can collective action dilemmas in resource management. While a wealth of literature focuses on institutional influence in common-pool resource management, recent research emphasizes the need to understand both how the local context and local governance structures influence community forestry outcomes. The goal of this study is to understand how governance and community resources interact to facilitate or impede the establishment and management of community-based forest enterprises. This paper addresses this question through a cross-case analysis of community forest enterprises in the Maya Biosphere Reserve. Results highlight the importance of social capital reflecting a growing body of research that has found that local-level network-based relationships are an important factor that either facilitates or impedes community governance processes. In addition, for many attributes of good governance, the resources that are typically seen as the most difficult to measure such as cultural capital, human capital and social relationships were also seen as having the greatest impact on governance.

Local incentive structures and the constitution of community-based enterprises in the forest

Departing from the inquiry if Community-Based Enterprises (CBEs) can support the implementation of Community Forest Management (CFM) approaches in sustainable use conservation units, the paper delves into Community-Based Forest Enterprises (CBFEs) in eight different Communities that agreed to be part of the Timber Small-Scale Sustainable Management Plan policy (SSSMP), in the Rio Negro Sustainable Development Reserve in the Brazilian Amazon. From the perspective of the communities, this article explores the factors that influence the creation of CBFEs, their viability, and their role in the implementation of CFM aiming at sustainable development in the forest in conjunction with the SSSMP policy. The analysis is based on the interviews, workshops and observation during fieldwork in the Reserve, resulting in three inductively deduced aggregate dimensions: community, CBFE and state. The findings suggest that these dimensions are interrelated, although they affect CBFEs differently regarding the conditions of possibility for their establishment in the first place. It is argued that considerable attention must be given to the community and their incentive structures where the CBFEs are located that directly inform the characteristics of the CBFEs themselves, as well as guide how CFM is implemented. The findings contribute to CBFE literature and CFM public policies in forest reserves. It broadens the discussion to explore the interdependent relationship that one has on the other and the benefits for livelihood and income generation of the peoples in conservation units in the Brazilian Amazon.

Investment and benefits associated with community based forest enterprises in Nepal

Community forests in Nepal are operating various types of forest-based enterprises. These enterprises are generating considerable amount of income and employment at the local level contributing to the local and national economy. Comprehensive assessment of these enterprises is needed to improve their condition in the future. There is lack of assessment on the investment and benefits associated with these enterprises. We collected the data from 195 community-based enterprises in 23 districts of Nepal representing all geographic and development regions. For the analysis purpose, we categorized the enterprises into four categories viz. non-timber forest products (NTFPs), wood, ecotourism and agriculture enterprises. We analysed the investment, income, households benefitted and employment generation from these enterprises and compared with each other. Mean investment in ecotourism (US$ 22805.09) and wood (US$ 11252.42) based enterprises was found higher than the mean investment in NTFPs (US$ 2628.03) and agriculture (US$ 3383.63) based enterprises. Mean annual income from the enterprises was found US$ 1982.56 and was significantly different between the types of enterprises (P<0.05). On an average 115 households were benefitted per enterprise. Employment generation from wood based (2527 man-days) enterprises was found the highest followed by ecotourism (1490 man-days) enterprises. The mean employment generation from NTFP (1093 man-days) and agriculture-based enterprises (978 man-days) was found significantly lower (P<0.05) than timber and ecotourism-based enterprises. Examination of community-based forest enterprises contribution in local economy and household economy is recommended for future researchers.

Searching for win-win forest outcomes: Learning-by-doing, financial viability, and income growth for a community-based forest management cooperative in the Brazilian Amazon

Abstract After more than two decades of investment by donors and governments in community forest management (CFM) initiatives for timber production from natural tropical forests, also known as community-based forest enterprises (CFEs), the sustainability of this livelihood alternative aimed at improved prosperity remains uncertain. Although many studies have focused on the environmental and social dimensions of CFEs, very little is known about their financial viability and socio-economic impacts, even though these elements are critical to ensuring the broad potential benefits of CFM. Furthermore, the lack of a consistent methodology for financial analyses severely limits the ability to learn from CFE case studies across initiatives and time. In an effort to measure the financial viability and identify critical factors that contribute to the poverty-alleviation potential of CFE timber production, we applied a simplified tool for financial analysis in collaboration with a CFE in the Brazilian Amazon three times over six years. The CFE operates in a national forest and is organized as a cooperative with more than 200 members from local communities experiencing high rates of poverty. We analyzed changes in labor productivity and the growth in incomes generated for seasonal and full-time workers, the value of goods and services purchased from the local economy, profits generated, and the overall financial viability of the timber operation. During the study period, the cooperative: (1) demonstrated substantial gains in efficiency and financial viability due to increasing returns to labor inputs, consistent with a model of learning-by-doing; (2) quadrupled the value of labor payments to local communities; and (3) generated substantial other economic benefits. We discuss strategies used by the CFE to improve its financial viability over time, maximize income opportunities for local residents, and respond to financial, social, and political challenges. Our findings indicate the importance of initial support from governments and other partners for start-up capital, subsidized access to trainings and technical assistance, and navigating complex bureaucratic systems, and the positive effect that improved productivity over time, scale economies, and access to markets can have in influencing the poverty-alleviation potential of CFE timber production initiatives in the tropics.

Updating Bark Proportions for the Estimation of Tropical Timber Volumes by Indigenous Community-Based Forest Enterprises in Quintana Roo, Mexico

Sustainable management of tropical forests is essential for conserving the ecosystem services they provide and protecting the livelihoods of the millions of people who depend on these forests. Community-based forest management in Quintana Roo, Mexico, has shown that conserving forests while generating economic benefits is achievable in the tropics. However, this management is carried out with technical gaps that jeopardize sustainable use of these resources. Crucial among these gaps is a lack of equations for precise calculations of logged timber volumes. Current equations employ a proportion of bark volume (PBV) of 0.14 for mahogany and a flat 0.10 for species with dense woods, despite their wide variation in bark thickness. Here, using Meyer’s method, we calculated species-specific PBVs for the most commercially-important species in the Felipe Carrillo Puerto community-based logging operation. For most species, the new PBVs were smaller, indicating that wood volumes are currently underestimated. However, for two species, PBVs were higher. New values could influence the profits of the local enterprise and on the management of some of the most commercially-important species of Mexico’s tropical forests through changes in the numbers of individuals felled.

The Role of Community Based Forest Enterprises in Rural Dwellers Welfare at Eriti Community in Ogun State, Nigeria

The Role of Community Based Forest Enterprises in Rural Dwellers Welfare at Eriti Community in Ogun State, Nigeria

Are community-based forest enterprises in the tropics financially viable? Case studies from the Brazilian Amazon

Community-based forest management is an integral component of sustainable forest management and conservation in the Brazilian Amazon, where it has been heavily subsidized for the last ten years. Yet knowledge of the financial viability and impact of community-based forest enterprises (CFEs) is lacking. This study evaluates the profitability of three CFEs in the Brazilian Amazon: Ambé, an industrial-scale, upland forest operation producing logs in a national forest, in Pará state; ACAF, a small-scale operation in flooded forests producing boards with a portable sawmill in Amazonas state; and Mamirauá, one of 30 CFEs in a reserve in Amazonas state producing logs and boards in flooded forests. Costs for each CFE were compiled by forest management activity and cost type. Annual total costs were calculated as the sum of fixed and variable costs and then subtracted from total revenue to obtain annual profit. The annual rate of return on investment was calculated by dividing profits by total costs. The Ambé and Mamirauá cases were profitable, demonstrating rates of return of approximately 12% and 2%, respectively; the ACAF case was not profitable. This study illustrates the benefits of cost-sharing among CFEs, and the potential return for investments in small and large-scale community forestry.

Certification of community forestry enterprises: experiences with incorporating community forestry in a global system for forest governance

This paper discusses the history and present status of community forest certification as an illustration of the growing interactions between global and local processes in forest governance. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification system is analyzed as an illustrative case of the trend towards increased incorporation of community-based forest enterprises (CFEs) into international initiatives for sustainable forest management and global markets. First the paper reviews the development of community-based forest management and the evolution in certification of community-based forest enterprises. Next it discusses the main challenges and opportunities for making CFE certification accessible and beneficial for communities. Finally it illustrates the importance of multi-level and multi-actor partnerships for creating effective interfaces between global standards and community forestry practices. The experiences with FSC certification of community-based forest enterprises demonstrate that community forestry is enlarging its scope from autonomous decision-making on local practice to incorporation in international forest governance systems. This experience also demonstrates that the application of global standards for sustainable forest management requires adaptation to local realities. These lessons are of relevance for further incorporation of community forestry in the newly evolving global programs for forest management and conservation.

Socioeconomic and Environmental Basis for the Development of Small Scale Forestry in a Highly Degraded Watershed in the Venezuelan Andes

In the last 20 years, the Mocoties watershed in the Venezuelan Andes has experienced an intense process of land-use change, with natural forests being replaced by “sun grown coffee” (Coffea arabica) monocultures in sites of high slope, increasing risk conditions and the vulnerability of people living in lower parts of the watershed. Using a local-scale approach, 37 productive units (10% of total) in the San Isidro micro-watershed (51.85 km2) were assessed in order to evaluate local socioeconomic conditions and perceptions of ecosystem services, and how both are affected by human activity. Almost 65% of residents work in small farms of less than 5 ha, while family ownership remains the most important form of management. A significant lack of financial support was detected, support which is required to improve coffee productivity and improve conservation practices. Severe soil loss was detected in 45% of the area, associated with cultivation on steep slopes and the use of chemical fertilizers. Agroforestry and tree planting are well-regarded, as locals tend to recognize soil protection and climate change mitigation as two of the most important ecosystem services. Using a small-scale forestry approach, it is believed that current land management could be greatly improved to: (1) progressively introduce tree cover into coffee monocultures; (2) restore degraded areas where forest cover is lost and (3) reduce deforestation. Recommended policies and actions include institutional strengthening, decentralization and the development of community-based forest enterprises. The general principles presented in this work could provide a preliminary basis for basin-wide land restoration.

Planning and Policy Issues in Small-scale Forestry Development in Southern Aragua State, Venezuela

In southern Aragua state, Venezuela—an area regarded as high priority for local and national development—important sources of income and traditions are related to a history of manufacturing wood products including furniture and woodcraft made of the native tree species Samanea saman. However, scarcity of wood has recently become a major constraint for people of Magdaleno, putting at risk traditional knowledge and employment opportunities. Based on an integrated approach taking into account biophysical, ecological, social and technological issues, a broad group of potential tree species were assessed in a landscape-scale analysis to promote a plantation project. Analysis of policy implications is made in the context of national legislation, socio-economic, institutional and environmental issues. The role of research and communication to improve decision-making processes at all scales are also examined. At least three wood species (Samanea saman, Acacia mangium and Gmelina arborea) with a total of 37 sites and an aggregate area of approximately 26,600 ha (266 km2), were found to be potentially able to sustain a local development initiative for all five municipalities located in southern Aragua state. In terms of implementation, small-scale forestry (SSF) is viewed as a new policy shift for forest management according to the new national forest legislation where local development is a central element. SSF faces several constraints and faces a wide variety of political issues. Critical among these issues are: (a) how SSF approaches deal with legislation and land tenure regulations; (b) the creation of community-based forest enterprises based on simplified management plans, (c) a broad assessment of potential ecosystem services delivered by forest plantations; and (d) improving communication of research for decision-making. Decentralization and institutional strengthening are identified as two basic conditions for pursuing sustainable management.

Community-Based Forest Enterprises in Nepal: An Analysis of Their Role in Increasing Income Benefits to the Poor

This paper examines the effective practices and constraints of community-based forest management enterprises (CBFEs) in Nepal in providing income benefits to the poor. The tenure reform clarity and strengthening of tenure rights at community level through various CBFM programs in Nepal in the last few decades has enhanced opportunities for the rural people to benefit from forest-based enterprises. However, a key concerns as these programs have advanced over the years has been whether the poor benefit from them given their high dependence on the forests. To examine this question, 28 CBFE from Nepal’s mid-hills and mountain districts were selected purposively from among forest user groups (FUGs) engaged in income-generating activities, varying in their size of membership, use of forest products and stage of growth. These CBFEs have been broadly categorised into FUGs, networks, cooperatives and companies. The contribution from enterprises to the household economy was found to be greatest from companies, followed by cooperatives and then networks. The effective practices of the CBFEs in increasing income benefits were found to include representation of the poor and marginalized groups in executive committees in the FUGs-based enterprises, targeted employment of the poorest in the collection of non-timber forest products and in processing units in networks, and enabling the poor to own share capital in cooperatives and companies. The common constraint across all these categories was found to be lack of adequate capital to sustain the enterprises without external support.The specific constraints were small membership and land size among FUGs, lack of legal recognition of networks, lack of management skills and member discipline for cooperatives, and lack of raw materials and marketing capacity for companies. The paper also discusses: the importance of further policy support to formalize forest user groups into networks, cooperatives and private companies; value addition to forest products; and capacity building for CBFEs, government line agencies and business services providers.

Local perceptions of forest certification for community-based enterprises

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification has been promoted as a way to encourage and recognize community-based forest enterprises (CFEs). However, certification has proved more difficult for CFEs than expected, and few certified operations have achieved the highly anticipated market benefits of certification. This has led to questioning of the compatibility of certification with CFEs, though few studies have directly asked local CFE actors their perceptions on this issue. This study investigates perceptions of certification for two CFEs in Brazil's western Amazon. The specific objectives of this study were (1) to determine the positive and negative aspects of certification as perceived by community members, their principal support organizations, and other key stakeholders, (2) to identify the relative importance of these perceived positive and negative aspects, and (3) to analyze the differences in perceptions between actors. Data were collected through structured interviews and a review of pertinent documents. Overall, the most positive aspects were economic and social, and the most negative aspects concerned the certification process and, to a lesser extent, the associated economic expenditures. Community members typically scored the positive aspects higher and the negative aspects lower than the support organizations. This is likely due to differences in roles and vantage points of these actors. In general, informants agreed that positive aspects of certification outweighed negative ones. This stands in contrast to some communities in other parts of Latin America that are contemplating dropping certification. Two particular conditions may have enabled operations in this study to overcome common constraints for CFEs: (1) membership in a regional producers group, and (2) strong political, technical, and financial support from the state government. Their experiences specifically highlight the need to adapt the certification process for CFEs and demonstrate that obtaining market benefits is possible.

Socio-economic impacts of community based forest enterprises in mid hills of Nepal-Case Study from Dolakha district

This paper endeavors to assess the socio-economic impact of FUG members affiliated with three Community Based Forest Enterprises (CBFEs) in Dolakha district. Important socio-economic variables, especially household income, gender and equity, decision making process, benefit sharing and resource management were analyzed. The study concludes that the CBFEs have created a positive impact on the socio-economic aspects of rural populace. 
 
 Key words: Community based forest enterprises, Gender and equity, Benefit sharing, Decision making, Resource management
 
 Banko Janakari Vol.15(2) 2005 pp43-47