L2 Communication Research Articles

Why students feel anxious in group work: an investigation into students’ perspectives on the sources of their anxious experiences in group work

IntroductionThis large-scale, mixed-methods study aimed to uncover sources of learner anxiety when interacting in small groups in the language classroom. A secondary aim of the study was to examine relationships between these sources and learners’ levels of small-group anxiety.MethodsData was gathered from 1,344 learners enrolled in English classes at four universities in western Japan. Qualitative content analysis was employed to identify anxiety-inducing situations described in learner’ responses, and categorize these situations based on the underlying source of anxiety.ResultsThe analysis revealed two primary sources of small-group anxiety: interacting with other learners and L2 communication. The most prominent interaction-related situations were interacting with new people, expressing opinions, and uncomfortable silence, while those related to L2 communication were competence and proficiency, conveying meaning and understanding others. Levels of small-group anxiety were significantly related to the source of anxiety. Learners with a high level of anxiety were twice as likely to cite interaction as the source of their anxiety than learners with a low level of anxiety.DiscussionThe results suggest that interaction anxiety may be more salient than foreign language anxiety when language learners work in small groups, and that the impact of this form of social anxiety needs to be taken into consideration for learners to fully receive the benefits of group work.

L2 anxiety, proficiency, and communication across the classroom, non-classroom, and digital settings: Insights from Ethiopian preparatory schools

Research into second or foreign language (L2) learning has demonstrated that L2 anxiety, perceived proficiency, and L2 willingness to communicate (L2WTC) profoundly impact language learning outcomes. However, the complex interplay between these variables has yet to be fully explored, as these factors are dynamic and context-specific and can vary across different learners and learning environments. The study, therefore, utilized a cross-sectional quantitative survey research design to scrutinize the causal relationships between L2 anxiety, English proficiency, and L2WTC of 609 Ethiopian preparatory school students. The model for the L2WTC, both inside and outside the classroom, has been expanded to include an additional sub-scale known as the L2WTC in a digital setting. Moreover, in contrast to the commonly recognized debilitative-focused L2 anxiety, the construct of L2 anxiety has been divided into facilitative and debilitative anxiety. This method allows us to measure not only the presence or absence of anxiety but also evaluate if anxiety helps or hinders the L2 learning experience. A self-assessment proficiency measure was also developed specifically for Ethiopian high school students. The study treated facilitative and debilitative anxiety as independent variables while considering English proficiency and L2WTC in the classroom, outside the classroom, and in digital settings as dependent variables. English proficiency was also used as an independent variable to predict L2WTC in these three settings. Our proposed model, including these variables, was tested using structural equation modelling (SEM). According to the descriptive analysis, the mean scores of L2WTC in the three settings were generally low, ranging from 2.30 to 2.84. Debilitative anxiety casts a shadow on the positive aspects of anxiety. The English proficiency was also too low. According to SEM, debilitative anxiety displayed a statistically significant negative impact on L2WTC inside and outside the classroom, in digital settings, and English proficiency. In contrast, facilitative anxiety was found to positively contribute to L2WTC outside the classroom, in digital settings, and in English proficiency. English proficiency made a statistically significant and positive contribution to L2WTC within and outside the classroom and in digital contexts. L2WTC inside the classroom positively contributed to L2WTC outside the classrooms and in digital contexts. We systematically compared the findings with existing studies in the discussion and elucidated the pedagogical implications, limitations, and potential future research avenues. The outcomes of our study have the potential to significantly contribute to the advancement of theoretical and empirical knowledge about improving English education, learning, and communication not only in Ethiopia but also in similar contexts of English as a foreign language (EFL).

Teachers as silencers: a Q methodology study into teachers’ characteristics contributing to unwillingness to communicate among foreign language learners

ABSTRACT Purpose This Q methodology study explored foreign language learners’ divergent viewpoints on teachers’ characteristics that contribute to unwillingness to communicate (unWTC). Design/methodology/approach Q sorting was administered in-person with 40 Chinese undergraduate students enrolled in several Thai as a Foreign Language courses at a university in Thailand. The students sorted 30 statements, each reflecting distinct teacher characteristics that potentially silence them in the classroom, onto a forced-distribution grid. All Q sorts were analyzed using inverted factor analysis, followed by semi-structured interviews with six of the participants. Findings The findings revealed three profiles of characteristics that contribute to L2 unWTC, namely, the impatient teacher, the uninspiring teacher, and the intimidating teacher. These profiles were found to hinder different groups from engaging in L2 communication. The findings are discussed in relation to relevant educational theories, and implications are presented. Originality/value This study highlights the importance of understanding and addressing specific teacher behaviors that influence learners’ L2 WTC. By identifying and mitigating these behaviors, educational institutions can create more supportive and encouraging learning environments that promote greater engagement and success in language learning.

Exploring Chinese as a second language learners’ motivational factors: Influence of selves and contexts

AbstractThe past decades have witnessed a significant increase in the number of global Chinese as a second language (L2) learners. Accompanying the surge is the growing body of research on their motivational factors. This mixed‐methods study was primarily informed by Dörnyei's L2 motivational self system (L2MSS), aiming to scrutinize Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners’ motivational factors from the perspectives of selves and contexts. Leveraging the concepts of the ideal L2 self and ought‐to L2 self from L2MSS, the anti‐ought‐to‐L2 self was incorporated into the framework. The L2 learning experience was reframed into three contextual dimensions, including attitudes toward the L2 community, cultural interest and pedagogical influence. Data were collected from 231 international students from a Chinese comprehensive university. Factor analyses confirmed seven motivational factors. Findings revealed that the ideal L2 self, ought‐to L2 self, pedagogical influence and cultural interest were effective in predicting individuals’ intended learning effort. Significant differences were identified in the motivational selves based on demographic variables of employment status, gender and student type. The novelty of this study lies in its focus on the motivations of languages other than English learners and the refinement of the L2MSS framework. It also offers CSL instructors pedagogical implications for developing targeted teaching strategies and promoting motivations among students from distinct educational and socio‐economic backgrounds.

Listenership always matters: active listening ability in L2 business English paired speaking tasks

Abstract Active listening, foundational for meaningful social interaction, plays a pivotal role in enhancing interactional competence (IC) during dialogues. Despite its importance, current second language (L2) assessments, such as the TOEFL iBT and the Business English Certificate (BEC) Preliminary, notably does not include active listening in their evaluation metrics. The research presented here contributes significantly to this discourse by foregrounding the imperative of listener responses (LRs) in L2 communication and the diverse interactional functions they serve across different cultures. Notably, variations emerge, with Chinese speakers exhibiting more restrained verbal feedback compared to the more vocally expressive English counterparts. This study stands apart by underscoring the necessity of updating current L2 assessment rubrics, which currently prioritize grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and vocabulary. By weaving in active listening, assessments can become more holistic, capturing more comprehensively a learner’s L2 interactional ability. Through rigorous quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this investigation probes the influence of active listening on BEC speaking test outcomes. Its findings are poised to revolutionize assessment strategies, urging a more encompassing approach that factors in both verbal and non-verbal cues, thereby reflecting genuine linguistic and interactional competence.

Undergraduate Students’ Willingness to Communicate in English during Remote Learning Classes

Objectives: This study examines Jordanian undergraduate students’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in English during remote learning. Methods: The data were collected using a 61-item Likert scale questionnaire from 285 undergraduate students (118 males and 167 females) studying English at a public university. All the responses collected were analysed using descriptive analysis (e.g., mean, standard deviation) and Pearson’s Correlation coefficient. Results: The results of the descriptive analysis showed that students had an overall moderate level of online experiences (M 2.98, SD 0.98), and high levels of WTC (M= 3.61, SD= 0.969), self-perceived communicative competence (M=3.62, SD=1.038), L2 communication anxiety (M=2.91, SD=1.156) and virtual intercultural experience motivation (M=3.5, SD=1.111). On the other hand, the results of the 2-tailed correlation revealed that there was a statistically medium-positive correlation between students’ online experiences and their WTC in online classes (r=.359, p<.001), a strong positive correlation between students’ self-perceived communicative competence and their WTC in online classes (r=.664, p<.001), an insignificant low positive correlation between L2 communication anxiety and their WTC in online classes (r =.031, p < .605), a strong positive correlation between students’ virtual intercultural experience motivation and their WTC in online classes (r = .535, p<.001). Conclusions: The study shows that despite the lack of experience in e-learning, the students tend to have good self-perceived communicative competence. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for future studies are given based on the results of the study.

L2 communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service English teachers

Communication in a foreign language is essential, and it requires an individual's competence in speaking skills. It needs to be improved to enhance an effective means of communication. The current study investigates the relationship between L2 communication apprehension and communicative competence of pre-service EFL teachers studying at a state university in Türkiye. The quantitative research approach focuses on understanding pre-service teachers' perceptions regarding communication apprehension and communicative competence. The study included 200 pre-service EFL teachers, with 146 female and 54 male participants. The age range of the participants was between 18 and 34. The results indicate that pre-service EFL teachers have varying levels of communication apprehension and are notably more apprehensive in certain situations. Additionally, the study found that perceived communication competence significantly influences communication apprehension. Some pedagogical strategies are discussed and suggested according to the findings of the study.

Second language learning motivation, life-long learning and 21st century skills in today's globalized world: A validation study

Knowledge production in today’s world presupposes skills necessary for successful knowledge construction and knowledge update. Such skills include English as a foreign language (EFL), life-long learning and 21st century skills. This study presents a quantitative pilot study (N=200) that examines the relationship between EFL learning motivation, communication in L1 and L2, some aspects of life-long learning and certain 21st century skills. The paper seeks to explore what this relationship is like and in what way these factors are connected and how they potentially impact one another. The study presents the validation of the instrument used for the research, and reports some of the preliminary findings. Based on the results, it is concluded that the ideal L2 self is a predictor of L2 learning motivation, willingness to use dictionaries and cooperation during EFL classes. The results also indicate that participants exhibit the necessary ICT and L1 skills for their studies of EFL, and positively relate to communicative situations with native and non-native speakers of English.

Narratives of Japanese nuclear immigrants in New Zealand: (in)(di)vesting in L2 and identity

ABSTRACT This article reports on a study that investigated the language learning and identity negotiation experiences of Japanese adults, nuclear immigrants, who left Japan and arrived in New Zealand after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident. Drawing on theories of investment, capital and communities of practice, the study explores how the nuclear immigrants negotiate their identities as L2 English learners and users within their New Zealand communities, both the L2 community and the L1 Japanese immigrant community infused with its own cultural and political ideologies. The study also asks why and how they invest or divest in English language learning and using practices. Data was collected via biographical narrative interviews from eight participants. Thematic narrative analysis identified themes which were interpreted in relation to dimensions of social activity represented by micro, meso, and macro levels. The findings indicate that the valuing and acceptance of the participants’ pre-existing capital serve as affordances to affirm and expand their identity, while rejection of their competence by sociocultural norms resulted in their withdrawal from the L2 communities, which eventually caused divestment in L2.

An Investigation of University Engineering Students’ Attitudes and Motivation in Correlation to Their Identity Formation in the Learning of EFL in a Multilingual and Multicultural Context

The study investigated engineering students’ attitudes and motivation in relation to their identity formation during the learning of EFL in a multilingual and multicultural context. It adopted a Motivational Factors Questionnaire (MFQ) based on Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational System framework. In this study, a mixed-methods approach was applied, with an ordered logistic regression technique for the quantitative part and content analysis for the qualitative part. The study revealed that engineering students’ characteristics such as gender, age, learners’ attitudes toward the L2 community, and nationality were influential factors in constructing their identity in a multilingual and multicultural context. In addition, they were found to be motivated to learn EFL for some pragmatic benefits, leading to positive attitudes toward EFL learning in such a context. They easily construct their identity because of their linguistic and cultural exposure. It is recommended that EFL be taught to all university students irrespective of their course of study, to fit perfectly into the globally diverse labor market of society.

Wearing face masks in different speech styles during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A study of Thai L2 English learners

AbstractDuring the COVID‐19 epidemic, the effect of mask wearing on communication has been questioned and explored. However, the study on the impact of face mask wearing on L2 speech is still limited. The main goal of the present study was to explore the extent to which face masks affect interlocutors’ L2 speech perception. Factors that varied were face mask (no mask, transparent mask, and disposable face mask), presentation mode (audio only vs. audiovisual), and speaking style (conversational vs. clear). The relationship between these three variables on the L2 processing was also investigated. Fifty‐three Thai undergraduates who were L2 learners of English participated in an Internet‐based perceptual task. They listened to 60 English sentences and typed the sentences they heard over an online form. The results showed that the participants did well when the L2 communication was in clear speech regardless of type of face mask and presentation mode. The improvement of the L2 perception of clear speech occurred even when the speaker produced sentences with disposable face mask as opposed to conversational speech suggesting that clear speech could enhance intelligibility in communication. As expected, the perceptual score was the lowest when the speech was in audio‐only mode with conversational style and disposable face mask. These results suggest that in L2 classroom contexts, speaking clearly could lessen the negative effects of the face mask and unavailability of visual information of the speaker.

Probing Socio-Pragmatic Skills of L2 Learners of Indonesian on Japanese Politeness

This study explores how learners of Japanese as a foreign language in Indonesia comprehend and use Japanese politeness. Many linguists mentioned that socio-pragmatic skills can be developed in a classroom. This skill is essential for L2 learners to master communication in L2, such as how to build and express turn-taking, eye contact and give attention to the interlocutors. Therefore, this study aims to prove whether Indonesian learners of Japanese could use appropriate socio-pragmatic skills, focusing on Japanese politeness in a conversation setting. The subjects are 120 students from two universities whose level of Japanese skills is on the A2-B1 CERF level. We use the role-play method and set a one-on-one conversation/interview setting. Our findings demonstrate that most Indonesian students had difficulty comprehending the concept of ‘Tachiba’, meaning the place where one stands in a Japanese conversation. Most student participants could not yet grasp the social and interaction level. However, in some cases, Japanese politeness in context meaning is found.

Going above and beyond: Motivations of L2 German learners to (dis)continue language study

AbstractSecond‐language (L2) learner motivation has been a thriving subfield within L2 acquisition research for decades, particularly since the development of the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), a multi‐faceted motivational theory. This survey‐based study examines (1) whether L2MSS facets differ between students intending to continue (or discontinue) learning German past the language requirement and (2) whether any relationship exists between the different selves within the L2MSS, students’ L2 Learning Experience (L2E), and their Willingness to Communicate (WTC). Third‐semester learners’ mean ratings of their Ideal Self, Anti‐Ought‐To Self, WTC, and Attitudes Toward the L2 Community were significantly higher among students intending to continue German study beyond the language requirement (N = 28) than those discontinuing study (N = 46). Multiple regression analyses predicted a positive effect of the Ideal Self on ratings of both L2E and WTC. Qualitative analysis revealed themes of fear and positive attitudes toward the German language/culture among learners intending to continue German study, while non‐continuers predominantly mentioned the language requirement. Both continuers and non‐continuers mentioned the concrete and abstract utility of language learning as an additional motivation. The implications of these results for student recruitment and retention in German language programs are discussed.

The effect of metaverse on L2 vocabulary learning, retention, student engagement, presence, and community feeling

This study investigates the multifaceted impacts of Metaverse Based Language Teaching on high school L2 vocabulary learning and retention, engagement, community feeling, and diverse dimensions of presence, namely social, cognitive, teaching, and overall presence. Adopting a quasi-experimental design, the study provides an in-depth controlled trial. The participants in this study consist of 86 (43 male, 43 female) high school English language learners in Türkiye, who are assigned to two groups. The control group uses traditional instructional technologies while the experimental group engages with metaverse technology. The lessons are based on social constructivist theory for both groups. Pre- and post-tests are employed to quantitatively assess vocabulary learning and retention and reveal substantial improvements in both areas. A series of carefully selected psychometric scales capture core aspects of engagement, community feeling, and presence. The findings reveal increased levels of engagement and a sense of presence, and connectedness within the language learning community, which confirms the efficacy of the MBLT. However, the improvement in social presence does not reach statistical significance. Cumulatively, the findings of this research transcend mere quantifiable improvements in vocabulary learning and retention. They reveal a holistic transformation of the language learning experience by emphasizing the significance of social interactions and digital embodiment in high school second language education through metaverse. The research highlights the metaverse’s potential in shaping the future of language education, reimagining traditional paradigms, and proposing a new era of immersive, interactive, and transformative pedagogy.

ChatGPT and L2 Written Communication: A Game-Changer or Just Another Tool?

The development of English language written communication skills across many contexts has been hindered by factors such as examination-oriented cultures, anxiety associated with both oral and written communication, limited opportunities for engaging in authentic communication, and a lack of individualized, personalized feedback. Multiple studies throughout the last decade have explored chatbot integration as a means to address these issues and enhance students’ language learning toolkits. This paper delves into the potential benefits and roles of advanced Generative AI (GenAI) chatbots (e.g., ChatGPT) in enhancing second language (L2) communicative practices. We evaluate findings associated with various types of chatbots and present pedagogical strategies for their application of GenAI in both in-class and out-of-class spaces to support students’ language learning experiences. We also propose future research directions, emphasizing the necessity to explore the ethical use of AI tools, their impact on L2 communication, and the comparative effectiveness of retrieval-based and GenAI-powered chatbots in language education.

Measuring Integrativeness as a Motivation for Second-Language Acquisition of Arabic in Learners at Saudi Arabia’s Arabic Language Institutes

Integrativeness, or the desire a second-language (L2) learner to integrate into their target L2 community, has been shown to be a strong motivation toward L2 learning. Aspects of identity, such as desire to learn a liturgical language (LL) associated with the L2 learner’s religion, or the level of ability for the L2 learner to develop a clear vision of their future L2 self, have also been shown to be strong L2 motivators. Arabic is the LL of Islam, and it is also the heritage language (HL) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Although levels of integrativeness will likely greatly impact L2 learning progress among learners at these ALIs, currently, an instrument does not exist for accurately measuring integrativeness into the target L2 community in KSA. The objective of this study was to develop a new instrument to measure Saudi integrativeness in L2 Arabic learners from KSA ALIs Diploma Programs. A total of 66 learners in three of the ALIs Diploma Programs completed the instrument. Twenty-three items were reduced to 16 through factor analysis, which revealed the following subscales: intellectual integrativeness, social integrativeness, remote admiration, and anti-integrativeness. While most of the sample was Muslim and displayed high levels of social and intellectual integrativeness and were interested in learning about cultural topics, they also placed priority on the quality of the classroom environment. The ALI classroom environment could be negatively impacted by a predominance of learners with anti-integrative attitudes, who are also less likely to be motivated and succeed at the individual level.

Factors Affecting Manageability of L2 Communication Problems and Its Influence on the Choice of Achievement/Avoidance Communication Strategies

Factors Affecting Manageability of L2 Communication Problems and Its Influence on the Choice of Achievement/Avoidance Communication Strategies

Mind maps to boost the learning of English as L2 at higher education institutions in Ukraine

Mind mapping is a powerful tool for teaching English as a foreign language, particularly in the context of learning and mastering English as a second language (L2). Visualizing the content contributes to a more effective memorization and error-free reproduction, even after some time. In the Ukrainian pedagogy, the didactic potential of “cognitive graphics” and specific means of its implementation calls for deeper studies and systemic representation as the concept itself is a multi-disciplinary phenomenon on the intersection of neuro-/psycholinguistics, psychology, theory of language communication, cognitivism, and web-design. That is why the aim of this work is to ascertain the essence of mind mapping as powerful means of teaching and learning English, to show its relations with ICT in designing an effective set of academic tasks and stimulating the student’s digital competence. The innovative character benefits the perception, and thus, the interiorization of the course content, increases the academic performance of students and their confidence in their abilities providing internal motivation for further work. As a result, the student’s selfassessment receives additional clarity, communication in L2 gets extra motivation, critical analysis skills and soft skills develop better creating a sturdy foundation set of skills for a highly professional graduate from a Ukrainian university.

The predicting role of EFL teachers’ immediacy behaviors in students’ willingness to communicate and academic engagement

BackgroundTeacher-student interactions and proximity have been shown influential in second/foreign (L2) education. However, the role of L2 teachers’ immediacy behaviors on students’ willingness to communicate (WTC) and academic engagement remains relatively unexamined in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL).PurposeThis study intended to examine the association among EFL teachers’ immediacy behaviors and students’ WTC and engagement.MethodsIn this quantitative study, three online questionnaires were completed by 400 Chinese EFL students in different universities out of which 364 were valid.ResultsThe results of statistical analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that teachers’ immediacy behaviors (verbal, nonverbal) had a highly significant influence on EFL students’ WTC (ß=0.89, p = .000) and academic engagement (ß=0.71, p = .000). It was also revealed that teachers’ immediacy could predict 89% and 71% of variances in students’ WTC academic engagement, respectively.ConclusionsBased on the results, I could be concluded that EFL teachers’ interpersonal communication abilities (e.g., immediacy) foster the establishment and growth of other positive outcomes among learners.ImplicationsThe study presents some conclusions and practical implications for EFL teachers, materials developers, and trainers to integrate the nonverbal cues of L2 communication into their practices. Such practices have the potential to enhance students’ willingness to communicate (WTC) and improve academic engagement.

Classroom gesture instruction on second language learners' academic presentations: Evidence from Chinese intermediate English learners

Gesture has been recognized as an important aspect of second language (L2) acquisition, playing a vital role in L2 communication. Previous research has shown that L2 learners' communicative efficacy can be facilitated through gesture mediation. In particular, L2 learners may find gesture a useful tool to deliver their subject-related academic presentations. However, whether classroom gesture instruction could boost L2 learners' gesture use in academic speaking context and their overall presentation performance has rarely been explored. Drawing on activity theory, this study aims to investigate the potential role of gesture instruction in intermediate L2 English learners' gesture use and their academic presentation performance. Our study found that L2 learners who received classroom gesture instructions showed significant improvement in their use of gestures, and outperformed the control group in a post-test presentation session, showing improvement in all gesture types among which beats were significantly increased. These findings confirm the teachability of gesture to enhance Chinese L2 English learners' academic presentation skills, proving gesture as an indispensable instructional component in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classroom.