Wolf Snake Research Articles

The nomenclatural status of “Anoplophallus maculatus” Cope, 1895, its consequences on the systematics of Lycodon subcinctus auctorum, and the description of a new species (Squamata: Colubridae)

The Malayan banded wolf snake, Lycodon subcinctus (F. Boie, 1827) has a complicated taxonomic and nomenclatural history. For almost a century, the combination Anoplophallus maculatus Cope, 1895 has been applied to populations of L. subcinctus from southern China, with various authors recognizing the taxon maculatus as a subspecies (i.e., Lycodon subcinctus maculatus) or junior synonym. A recent study that proposed the elevation of Chinese L. subcinctus to species rank (as Lycodon “maculatus”) prompted us to re-investigate several nomenclatural issues relevant to Anoplophallus maculatus that have not been fully addressed in the literature. We show that Anoplophallus maculatus was not described as a new species, and actually refers to Megalops maculatus Hallowell, 1861, a Neotropical snake currently known as Leptodeira maculata (Dipsadinae). As a consequence, populations of L. subcinctus recently recognized as Lycodon “maculatus”, have no valid binomen applied to them. To resolve this issue, we provide a new species name for populations of L. subcinctus from China and include a morphological description based on specimens collected across all of mainland Southeast Asia. The new species, Lycodon neomaculatus sp. nov., occurs well outside of southern China, and inhabits Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam) and eastern Myanmar. Lycodon neomaculatus sp. nov. is distinguished from both L. sealei and L. subcinctus by subtle differences in adult dorsal color pattern and body scalation. The distributions of L. neomaculatus sp. nov. and L. subcinctus sensu stricto appear to be allopatric, and the Isthmus of Kra region in peninsular Thailand may act as a biogeographic filter separating the two species.

Expanded description & range extension of Lycodon sidiki Wostl, Hamidy, Kurniawan & Smith, 2017 (Squamata: Colubridae)

The wolf snake species Lycodon sidiki was described based on only one specimen from Aceh Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Herein, we report new characters and a range extension of this species based on a re-examination of eight preserved specimens deposited in the collections of the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Austria (NHMW). Based on the new information, we record this species for the first time from West Sumatra Province (Padang) and update its diagnostic characters. Furthermore, we provide distinguishing features from the closely related species belonging to the Lycodon fasciatus species group. In addition, we also update the key to Lycodon species in Sumatra Island.

Evaluation of trial reintroductions of two extinct in the wild reptile species on Christmas Island

AbstractConservation reintroductions play a vital role in the recovery of threatened species, and clear goals and objectives are essential for evaluating their effectiveness. In this study, we assessed short‐term success (<18 months) of trial reintroductions of the Extinct in the Wild blue‐tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) and Lister's gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri) on Christmas Island. Our evaluation criteria focused on body condition, reproduction, habitat suitability, survival and population growth. In 2018 and 2019, 170 C. egeriae and 160 L. listeri were translocated from a local captive breeding facility to a 2600 m2 outdoor fenced enclosure designed to exclude a predatory snake. Despite body condition declining immediately following release for both species, it had improved by 6 months post‐release. We also detected successful reproduction in both species. Apparent survival was high for C. egeriae but low for L. listeri, and population growth was only evident in C. egeriae. We were unable to determine whether low survival of L. listeri in the release site was due to high post‐release dispersal (beyond the exclosure) or mortality. Both species selected habitats that contained high rock and log cover and avoided areas with low ground cover. Appropriate assessment criteria, as utilized in this study, enable objective and timely evaluations of reintroduction success, thereby facilitating the improvement and refinement of reintroduction protocols. Our study showed that C. egeriae can establish (in the short‐ to medium‐term) in a site from which a principal threat has been excluded and undergo rapid population growth, whereas under current conditions L. listeri cannot. However, we also demonstrate that such medium‐term success may not lead to long‐term success, as the rapid increase in C. egeriae population was reversed between 29 and 31 months after release because the barrier used to exclude an invasive predator, the wolf snake (Lycodon capucinus), was breached.

Taxonomic status of Lycodon subcinctus sensu lato in China (Serpentes, Colubridae)

The Malayan Banded Wolf Snake Lycodon subcinctus Boie, 1827 once included three subspecies, namely L. s. subcinctus Boie, 1827, L. s. sealei Leviton, 1955, and L. s. maculatus (Cope, 1985). Thereafter, L. s. sealei has been elevated to species level, and the taxonomic status of L. s. maculatus has not been resolved. We sequenced the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) gene fragments of eight specimens of L. s. maculatus from China, including three from the adjacent areas of its type locality. Combining the sequences obtained from GenBank, we reconstructed a molecular phylogeny and reevaluated the taxonomic status of L. s. maculatus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed three highly divergent lineages within L. subcinctus sensu lato which correspond to L. subcinctus sensu stricto, L. sealei, and L. s. maculatus, respectively. Coupled with morphological comparison, we elevate L. s. maculatus to full species and redescribe it based on the type and freshly collected material.

The wolf in the skin of krait: The innocent Indian wolf snake, a case series

The wolf in the skin of krait: The innocent Indian wolf snake, a case series

Present Status, Challenges and Prospects of Snake Farming in Bangladesh

Venomous snakes are one of the most dreadful animals globally that kill their victims by injecting venoms (toxic substances) using fangs. However, snakes are being used for numerous vital life-saving purposes, including antivenom and traditional medicines, pain killers, cancer treatment, cardiac arrest, paralysis, arthritis, anti-ageing, and cosmetics to leather products, foods, display and research. This study was conducted to investigate the current status, challenges and prospects of snake farming in Bangladesh using self-structured questionnaires surveys. In this study, in total, 281 snakes belonging to 12 species i.e., common krait Bungarus caeruleus, banded krait B. fasciatus, greater black krait Bungarus niger, monocled cobra Naja kaouthia, spectacled cobra Naja naja, king cobra Ophiophagus hannah, russell's viper Daboia russelii, indian python Python molurus, common sand boa Eryx conicus, common cat snake Boiga trigonata, common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus and rat snake Ptyas mucosa were observed. This study also showed that the largest snake farm was at Patuakhali, where about 231 venomous snake individuals were reared, while 35 snakes were reared in Rajshahi farm, eight and seven snakes were reared in Rajbari and Gazipur farms, respectively. These snakes were collected from snake catchers/charmers and rescued from several places and nature. Snakes were fed on natural feeds (toad, frog, rat, and snake) and chickens. These farms had small to medium tin-shed building infrastructure with minimal facilities and used tanks, cages, and vivaria for snake rearing, breeding, and displaying. Snake farmers had not received any training, but some skilled snake handlers operated these farms. These snake farms did not keep managemental activities records and lack of proper design. These were not collected and preserved snake venom and were mainly involved in snake displaying. Although this study did not explore much information but snake farming may have great potential in Bangladesh; thus, more research is warranted on proper snake farming facilities. However, the government could be initiated the establishment of a modern and sophisticated snake farm for research, development, conservation, and venom collection including antivenom production and pharmaceutical purposes. Hence, the existing snake resources and skilled professionals may assist the government in snake farming activities. Bangladesh J. Zool. 50 (1): 121-133, 2022

Measuring Annual Variation in Reproductive Output Reveals a Key Role of Maternal Body Condition in Determining the Size of Eggs in Snakes.

Simple SummaryWe measured female reproductive traits of a colubrid snake (Lycodon rufozonatus) from Zhejiang, East China in four years (1999, 2010, 2011, and 2014). After removing the influence of female size, postpartum body mass was greater in 2010 than in 2014, clutch mass was greater in 2010 than in 2011 and 2014, and egg size was greater in 2010 than in the other three years. Egg size was positively related to postpartum body condition in each year. Females laid larger eggs in 2010 than in other three years after removing the influence of maternal size and body condition. Our study does not follow the prediction that reproductive females with different amounts of resources to invest should give priority to adjusting the number rather than size of offspring.Long-term studies are especially suited for disentangling the effects of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on both total reproductive investment and reproductive allocation in offspring number versus offspring size. Female reproductive traits of the red-banded wolf snake (Lycodon rufozonatus) from Zhejiang, East China were studied in four years between 1999 and 2014. Egg-laying dates overall extended from late June to late July, and varied among years. Postpartum body mass, clutch size, clutch mass, and egg size were positively related to female size (snout vent length, SVL) in each year. Postpartum body mass, clutch mass, and egg size differed among years after accounting for female SVL, whereas clutch size did not. Setting female SVL at the same level, postpartum body mass was greater in 2010 than in 2014, clutch mass was greater in 2010 than in 2011 and 2014, and egg size was greater in 2010 than in the other three years. Females did not trade off egg size against number. Egg size was positively related to postpartum body condition in each year. Females laid larger eggs in 2010 than in other three years after removing the influence of maternal body condition. Our study provides evidence for the traditional view that reproductive output is highly linked to maternal body size in snakes, but not following Smith and Fretwell’s (1974) classic prediction that females with different amounts of resources to invest in reproduction should give priority to adjusting the number rather than size of their offspring. Maternal body size and condition both are important sources of variation in egg size, but factors other than these two variables may also affect the size of eggs produced by female L. rufozonatus.

Study of Ophio Fauna in and Around Indapur of Pune District, Maharashtra, India

One of the most widely distributed vertebrates on the planet, snakes tend to prefer arid regions due to their diversity. The present paper deals with geographical, ecological distribution and biodiversity of snakes in the area of Indapur tehsil district Pune, India. The present investigation was undertaken to study the diversity of Ophio fauna from Indapur tehsil Pune district. In this study there was 15 species of snakes belonging to 14 genera, 5 families. In which Colubridae is most diverse snakes family from Indapur tehsil. The findings indicated that there are 15 species of snakes from 5 families present in the Indapur tehsil; Eight genera and eight species belonging to the family Colubridae, including the rat snake, water snake, grass snake, banded racer, wolf snake, Trinket, Kukri, and cat snake; two genus and two species of elapids- Common krait and Indian cobra. Viper and saw scaled viper are two species belonging tothe family Viperidae.

The lost lizards of Christmas Island: A retrospective assessment of factors driving the collapse of a native reptile community

AbstractUntil recently, the reptile fauna of Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean comprised five endemic species (two skinks, two geckos, and one snake) and one native, non‐endemic skink. Four of these species were common and widespread until at least 1979, but by 2012 had disappeared from the wild. During the years of decline, little research was undertaken to examine why the species were disappearing. Here, we use a retrospective expert elicitation to rank potential factors that contributed to the loss of Christmas Island's reptiles and to assess the likelihood of re‐establishing populations of two species now listed as Extinct in the Wild. We additionally considered why one endemic lizard, the Christmas Island giant gecko (Cyrtodactylus sadleiri), and three introduced lizards remain common. Experts considered that the introduced common wolf snake (Lycodon capucinus) was the most likely cause of decline, as its temporal and spatial spread across the island closely matched patterns of lizard disappearances. An Asian co‐occurrence in recent evolutionary timeframes of the common wolf snake with the Christmas Island giant gecko and three introduced reptiles was the most marked point of difference between the extant and lost lizard species. The demise in less than 20 years of 80% of Christmas Island's native lizard assemblage highlights the vulnerability of island fauna to invading species.

New records of Common Wolf Snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Serpentes: Colubridae) from Uttar Pradesh (India), with distribution of other Indian species

Present study deals with the new records of Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758), the Common Wolf Snake, belonging to family Colubridae, from Shikohabad (Firozabad district) and Ghaziabad proper(Ghaziabad dist.), Uttar Pradesh (India) with its systematic account, distribution, habitat, food & feeding, breeding, behaviour, threats and distribution of other Indian species.

Range extension and extended diagnosis of Lycodon pictus: First country record from China

The Painted Wolf Snake, Lycodon pictus, was recently described based on the type series from Trung Khanh and Ha Lang districts in Cao Bang Province, northern Vietnam. Herein, we report new findings and a range extension of the recently described species. One individual was collected close by the type locality, in Ha Lang District, Cao Bang Province, Vietnam and another one in Nonggang National Nature Reserve, Longzhou County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, approximately 60 km apart from the type locality. Both specimens generally accorded with the morphological diagnosis of L. pictus provided in the original description. Molecular analyses supported the morphological findings: the newly collected specimens were approximately 0.3-0.9% (cyt b) genetically divergent from those of the type series. Molecular analyses also revealed that the holotype of L. pictus, for which no sequences were available so far, showed, based on the results of a formalin protocol, about 0.9-1.3% differentiation from the remaining type series, 0.5% from the new record from Cao Bang and 0.9% from the new record from China. Based on the morphological and molecular findings, we herein present the first country record of L. pictus from China, with a detailed morphological description of the specimen from Nonggang National Nature Reserve and slightly extend the original diagnosis of the species.

Survival of an Extinct in the Wild skink from Christmas Island is reduced by an invasive centipede: implications for future reintroductions

The blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) is endemic to Christmas Island but underwent rapid population declines in the 1990s and 2000s and was listed as Extinct in the Wild in 2017. As invasive giant centipedes (Scolependra subspinipes) were implicated as a cause of a failed reintroduction of captive bred skinks into a fenced enclosure, we undertook a mesocosm experiment to investigate if skink survival and body condition was negatively affected by the presence and density of S. subspinipes. In addition, we used DNA barcoding to determine if wild centipedes consume other reptile species on Christmas Island. In the mesocosm experiments, survival of skinks was reduced by 30% and 44% at low and high centipede densities respectively over 12 weeks, and skink body condition also declined significantly over this period. DNA barcoding confirmed that skinks that were lost during the mesocosm experiment had been consumed by centipedes. Further, we detected DNA of two invasive reptiles (the common wolf snake Lycodon capucinus and the Asian House gecko Hemidactylus frenatus) in the stomachs of wild-caught centipedes, suggesting that centipedes are a generalist predator of reptiles in this island ecosystem. Based on these results, we recommend that attempts to reintroduce C. egeriae to Christmas Island should include the control of centipedes to increase the likelihood of success.

A new locality record for the Yellow-collared Wolfsnake, Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee and Bhupathy 2007, from Hyderabad, Telangana, India

A new locality record for the Yellow-collared Wolfsnake, Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee and Bhupathy 2007, from Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Occurrence of the Yellow-spotted Wolf Snake (Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907) in Surat, Gujarat, India

Occurrence of the Yellow-spotted Wolf Snake (Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907) in Surat, Gujarat, India

The threat of invasive species to bats: a review

Abstract Biological invasions are a major driver of biodiversity loss, but no study has described the scope of threats to bats (Chiroptera) by invasive species. We reviewed the literature for negative effects of invasive species to bats and summarised threats according to four categories: predation, disease, competition, and indirect interactions. We identified threats of 37 invasive species to 40 bat species. Ten bat species were threatened by more than one invasion pathway. About 38 percent of cases are speculative and 18 percent circumstantial, many attributed to overlapping ranges, and most accounts do not quantify effects needed to forecast bat population impacts. Evidence of cat predation is frequently cited, constituting the greatest incidence of observational data. Other direct and indirect impacts were documented from goats, dogs, brown tree snake, rainbow lorikeet, rose‐ringed parakeet, yellow crazy ant, giant centipede, palm, burdock, avian cholera, and white‐nose syndrome. Circumstantial evidence suggests impacts by rats, stoats, coqui frog, common wolf snake, little fire ant, kudzu, and Lantana camara. Other impacts by giant centipede, yellow crazy ant, cats, goats, rats, and avian cholera are speculative, as are those from pigs, deer, white eye, common starling, house sparrow, rock dove, barn and little owls, brush‐tailed possum, honeybee, wasp, phytophagous insects, tamarisk, Cinnamomum verum, and Tabebuia pallida. Over 60 percent of bat species reviewed are island‐dwelling, corresponding with evidence indicating that most extinctions occur on islands and invasive species’ impacts are worse for island than mainland populations. Although appreciable bat population reductions owing to invasive species are often unproven, invasions are likely to exacerbate effects of other vulnerabilities. Multiple invaders and synergistic interactions may ultimately lead to species losses. Managers should exercise the precautionary principle by taking action against non‐native species when first detected, even if new species do not appear to be detrimental.

SNAKE RESCUES; A CONSERVATION EFFORT IN KANNUR DISTRICT

Snakes can be found near human habitation because of different reasons of which abundance of prey (rodents) is the major fact. This draws conflict between snakes and humans. Even though snakes are protected with Indian Wildlife Act of 1972, they are generally regarded dangerous creatures to man and whenever spotted deserve no mercy. Hence, recues of the snake is an important factor for conserving the species. Trends in the population of snakes are difficult to monitor due to its sporadic distribution and secretive nature of snakes. Lack of knowledge about the population concerns any conservational plans. Thisdata attempt to document the diversity, population and seasonality of the snakes rescued in Kannur by Rapid response team from October 2011 to October 2014 in Kannur district. A total of 1427 snakes comprising 16 species were rescued in Kannur district of which 65% were venomous snakes. Indian Spectacled Cobra (Naja naja; 44.1%) were found to be common venomous snake encountered in the district. Russell’s Viper (Daboia russelii; 14.8%), Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus; 3.4%), King Cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah;2.5%) and few cases of Malabar Pit-Viper (Trimeresurus malabaricus;0.1%), Common Cat Snake ( Boiga trigonata;0.2%) and Forsten’s Cat snake (Boiga forsteni;0.1%) are the other venomous species.. Indian Rock Python (Python molurus; 30.1%) was the commonly rescued non-venomous snake in Kannur. Other non-venomous snakes were Rat snake (Ptyas mucosa; 1.8%), Common Trinket snake (Coelognathus helena; 1.3%), Wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus; 0.4%), Common Kukri (Oligodon arnensis; 0.1%), Common sand boa (Eryx conicus; 0.3%) and Red sand boa (Eryx johnii; 0.5%). Seasonal variations in the number of rescued snakes were discussed. Knowledge of activity pattern of the snake in the district can be used for successful management and conservational plans. Waste management, rodent control, reducing hideout places etc were suggested to decrease the number of snakes entering into house compound. Promoting awareness about the local snake among the public is as important as rescue activities. The increase in rescue call by 40% in 2013 can be taken as one of the successes of the awareness programs conducted across the district.

A new species of Wolf Snake of the genus Lycodon H. Boie in Fitzinger (Squamata: Colubridae) from the Aceh Province of northern Sumatra, Indonesia

Herein we describe a new species of Lycodon H. Boie in Fitzinger (Squamata: Colubridae) from Aceh Province, Sumatra. This brings the number of species known to occur on the Sunda Shelf to seven. The new species is readily diagnosed from the other congeners in the region by the lack of a preocular scale, the presence of keeled dorsal scales and a banded venter. It is superficially similar to L. butleri from the Malaysian Peninsula in coloration and to L. subcinctus in head scalation. Genetically, the new species is most similar to a group of species from Mainland Southeast Asia and China. We also note the presence of several deeply divergent lineages within Lycodon that may warrant the recognition as distinct genera. The genus is in need of a comprehensive molecular and morphological review.

A New Locality for the Elusive and Endemic Yellow-Spotted Wolf Snake (Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907), with Notes on Distribution and Habitat

A New Locality for the Elusive and Endemic Yellow-Spotted Wolf Snake (Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall 1907), with Notes on Distribution and Habitat

Diversity of Snakes in Rajegwesi Tourism Area, Meru Betiri National Park

Rajegwesi tourism area is one of the significant tourism areas in Meru Betiri National Park, East Java, Indonesia. The area rich in term of biodiversity which are potential for developed as natural tourism attraction. The aim of this study is to identify snakes species diversity and its distribution in Rajegwesi tourism area. Field survey was done in Rajegwesi area, namely swamps forest, residential area, rice fields, agriculture area ( babatan ), resort area, and Plengkang cliff. This study found some snakes, encompasses Colubridae (10 species), Elapidae (four species), and Phytonidae (one species). There are Burmese Python ( Python reticulatus ), Red-necked Keelback ( Rhabdophis subminiatus ), Painted Bronzeback Snake ( Dendrelaphis Pictus ), Black Copper Rat Snake ( Coelognathus flavolineatus ), Radiated Rat Snake ( C. radiatus ), Striped Keelback ( Xenochrophis vittatus ), Checkered Keelback ( X. piscator ), Spotted Ground Snake ( Gongyosoma balioderius ), Gold-ringed Cat Snake ( Boiga dendrophila ), Common Wolf Snake ( Lycodon capucinus ), Banded Wolf snake ( L. subcinctus ), Cobra ( Naja sputatrix ), King Cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah ), Malayan Krait ( Bungarus candidus ), and Banded Krait ( B. fasciatus ) was found. These snake habitats distributes at 21 coordinate points. Keywords: conservation, ecotourism, snakes.

A New Species of Wolf Snake (Serpentes: Colubridae: Lycodon ) from Berhampur, Ganjam, Odisha, India

A new species of the wolf snake is described from Odisha, India. Morphologically, the new species is most similar to Lycodon jara , but differs by its well defined collar. The collar is white in hatchlings and white with yellow blotches on the dorsal side in juvenules and adults. The snout is projected beyond the lower jaw (vs. not beyond in L. jara ). The post-oculars are one or two (vs. 2 always in L. jara ). Twin spots are present on each scale of the body except the 6 – 7 rows of scales in the collar region (vs. each scale in L. jara ). The color of twin spots is white in hatchlings and yellow in adults in the new species. The yellow tinges on the head shields are much less as compared to L. jara in the adults of the new species.