Common Sexually Transmitted Diseases Research Articles

Association between Chlamydia trachomatis Infection and Male Infertility: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Chlamydia trachomatis infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases. There is widespread evidence in recent years that indicate C. trachomatis infection plays a role in sperm dysfunction and poor sperm quality. However, some controversial documents have argued the role of infection with this bacterium in male infertility. A full comprehensive electronic search was performed using the online databases Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar, without considering the time limits. In the present study, 56 articles were finally found to be eligible. The prevalence of C. trachomatis infection in the infertile males was estimated at 20.6% (19.8-21.5 with 95% CIs; p- Value: 0.01; I2: 97.77; Q-Value: 237.8; p-Value: 0.01; Begg's p-Value: 0.09; Egger's p-Value: 0.01) in overall. We have also shown that infection with C. trachomatis can significantly increase the risk of infertility in men (OR: 2.28; 1.90-2.72 with 95% CIs; p-Value: 0.001; I2: 81.61; QValue: 59.81; p-Value: 0.01; Begg's p-Value: 0.73; Egger's p-Value: 0.61). We showed a high prevalence of C. trachomatis in the sperm and semen samples of infertile men, and C. trachomatis infection is associated with a significantly higher risk of infertility in men.

Seroprevalence of Sexually Transmitted Diseases among Overseas Job Seekers in Nepal

Objectives: Migration is one of the socioeconomic factors that contribute to the acquisition and dissemination of sexually transmitted disease/s (STDs), a long-recognized major global health issue. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of STDs among Nepalese overseas job seekers. Methods: Retrospective serological data of Nepalese overseas job seekers (n=14,980), who were tested for Hepatitis B (HB), Hepatitis C (HC) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and syphilis with Treponema pallidum hemagglutination assay, were extracted (January and December 2021) from the electronic database of a diagnostic center and analyzed using SPSS version 17.0. Results: Syphilis seroprevalence was 0.59% among overseas job seekers, while HB, AIDS, and HC seroprevalences were 0.32%, 0.15%, and 0.11%, respectively. Unlike syphilis, which was predominated in the age group of 31-40 years, viral hepatitis and AIDS were prevalent in the age group of 21-30 years. Males had higher incidences of HB (n=48), HC (n=17), AIDS (n=23), and syphilis (n=86) compared with females. Co-prevalence of HIV-syphilis and HIV-HBV occurred in 0.020% (n=3) and 0.013% (n=2) of individuals, respectively, whereas both HIV-HCV and HBV-HCV co-prevalence was observed in 0.007% (n=1) of individuals. Conclusion: Syphilis is the most common STD among Nepalese overseas job seekers, with the highest co-occurrence with AIDS.

Sexually transmitted diseases in cancer patients diagnosed under the age of 20 years – a national registry-based cohort study from Finland

Background Adolescents with chronic diseases are shown to be vulnerable for risky sexual behavior. Childhood cancer patients seem to engage in risky health behaviors as frequently as general population, but little is known about sexual issues in this group of patients. Material and methods We characterized the risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STD) in a Finnish population-based cohort of over 6,000 childhood cancer patients diagnosed with cancer under the age of 20 years between 1971 and 2009, compared with over 30,000 age- and sex -matched population comparisons. The data were constructed through linkage between national cancer, population, infectious diseases, and hospital discharge registries. We estimated hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using Cox regression modeling with attained age as the underlying time scale. Results Childhood cancer patients had a decreased risk for having an infection with chlamydia, the most common STD in our cohort, when comparing with population comparisons (HR 0.77, 95% CI 0.69–0.86). The risk was lowest among male patients (HR 0.64, 95% CI 0.53–0.79) and patients with central nervous system (CNS) tumors (HR 0.46, 95% CI 0.33–0.63). The overall risk for cervical dysplasia was slightly increased among female cancer patients when compared with their population comparisons (HR 1.28, 95% CI 1.02–1.60). Greatest risk elevation was found among patients diagnosed with cancer in ages 10–14 years (HR 2.31, 95% CI 1.46–3.65) and patients with lymphoma (HR 1.95, 95% CI 1.20–3.16). The risk for all explored outcomes seemed to be decreased among patients with CNS tumors. Conclusions Our findings highlight the importance of integrating sexual issues as a part of psychosocial support and having a systematic transition program in the follow-up care of childhood cancer patients.

The clinical pattern of sexually transmitted diseases in the outpatient department (skin and VD), Sher-E-Bangla Medical College Hospital, Barishal

<p class="abstract"><strong>Background: </strong>Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) affect men and women of all backgrounds and economic levels. CDC estimates that 19 million new infections occur each year, almost half of them among young people ages 15 to 24. Common STDs are acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), chancroid, genital HPV infection, gonorrhea, syphilis, trichomoniasis and viral hepatitis. The aim was to see the pattern of STDs in the skin and VD outpatient department (OPD), Sher-E-Bangla Medical College Hospital, Barishal, Bangladesh.</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Methods: </strong>The prospective observational study was conducted among 100 patients with STDs both male and female patients in the OPD of dermatology department of Sher-E-Bangla Medical College Hospital during the period from July 2015 to December 2015 irrespective of sex and age >15 years to assess the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases.</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Results:</strong> In this study, prevalence of STDs such as gonorrhea, syphilis, non-gonococcal urethritis, chancroid, genital herpes and genital warts were observed. Gonorrhea was 28%, 13% were syphilis, non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU) was 43% and chancroid, genital herpes, genital warts were 5%, 7% and 4% respectively.</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Conclusions:</strong> STDs are becoming a major public health problem in our county. So, STDs have to be wiped in the bud by early diagnosis, efficient treatment and appropriate preventive and control measures. </p>

The trend of STD in COVID times- A retrospective hospital-based study from Northeast India

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are considered to be a burden for mankind since long. Different studies showed variation in epidemiology of STD. Our study is targeted towards unveiling the prevalence of STD during covid times. : To study the change of prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases during covid times.: A retrospective study of all patients, who attended the outpatient department (OPD) of Dermatology, Venerology and Leprosy (DVL) of Silchar Medical College and Hospital, Assam, India was done. All the follow-up cases and patients who showed no evidence of STD were excluded from the study.: In the study period (2020-21), out of the 10,954 patients who attended the DVL OPD, 90(0.8%) patients had STD, whereas, in the year (2019-20), total of 57,275 patients attended the clinic, among which 272(0.5%) patients had STD. STD was more among males than females, showing a male: female ratio of 1.9:1 in 2020-2021 as compared to 1.5:1 in 2019 to 2020. Some results were similar in both the study period; like the mean age group was 36 years, most females were housewives and males were shopkeepers and majority of the patients with STD were married. In our study from 2020-21, Herpes genitalis with 29 cases (32.2%) was the most common STD, followed by syphilis and urethral discharge with 17 (18.8%) cases each. Vaginal discharge with 11(12.2%) cases, genital warts with 7(7.7%) cases, GUD-non-herpetic with 5(5.5%) cases and balanoposthitis with 4(4.4%) cases were other STDs during the 2020-’21 period. When compared to 2019-20, herpes genitalis was most common with 72(26.4%) cases followed by vaginal discharge with 58(21.4%) cases, syphilis with 43(15.8%) cases, urethral discharge with 58(21.4%) cases, GUD-non herpetic with 26(9.6%) cases, balanoposthitis with 21(7.8%) cases and warts with16(5.8%) cases.Amidst the COVID-19 crisis and lockdown, a decline in the overall number of patients was seen and similar trend was observed among STD patients reporting to our hospital. Among these, the majority had genital ulcer disease of viral origin. Females were most commonly affected and a decline in bacterial STDs was also seen.

Study of prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus in various sexually transmitted diseases patients at tertiary care center

<p class="abstract"><strong>Background:</strong> The presentation and course of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) may be altered by presence of coexisting HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) status. The purpose of the study was to study the prevalence of HIV in 278 cases of STDs.</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Methods:</strong> From September 2018 to December 2021, all STDs presented in dermatology outpatient department of a tertiary care center, were assessed to determine the prevalence of HIV. A thorough history was taken along with proper general and cutaneous examination as per predesigned case record proforma.<strong></strong></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Results:</strong> Prevalence of HIV was observed in 29 (10.43%) out of 278 STD patients, out of which 18 were males and 11 were females with the male:female ratio of 1.63:1. Maximum patients belonged to the age group of 31-40 years (44.72%). Herpes genitalis was the most common STD associated in HIV seropositivity (9.56%).</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Conclusions:</strong> HIV prevalence in STDs has been showing decreasing trends in our study. In view of this, prevention and control of STDs play an important role in efforts to control HIV infection in India. Hence Focusing on this STD and HIV relationship is of vital importance.</p>

Emerging trends in sexually transmitted diseases in a tertiary care center in Davangere, Karnataka: A five year study.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a public health challenge, and the epidemiological profile is variable by geographical region and distinct from that of other diseases. Accurate knowledge of emerging disease trends is crucial for formulating effective control strategies. The aim and objective of this study were to identify the changing scenario and emerging trends of STDs in Davangere, Karnataka, by evaluating patients attending a tertiary care center. A tertiary care-based retrospective study was conducted by analyzing the clinical records of the attendees presenting to the STD clinic at Chigateri General Hospital affiliated to JJM Medical College in Davangere, Karnataka, for a period of 5 years from January 2015 to December 2019. The collected data were analyzed and statistically compared with other studies. Out of the 614 patients studied, the male-to-female ratio was 2:1, with 30-39 age groups being most affected. Eighty-eight percent of patients were married, with 36.64% giving a history of extramarital contact. Homosexual and bisexual contacts were observed to be 5.21% and 0.65%, respectively. Viral STDs affected nearly half of the patients (49.51%), followed by fungal (28.88%), bacterial (22.63%), and others (3.1%). The most common STD observed was herpes genitalis as seen in 101 (24.48%) patients, followed by candidal balanoposthitis (17.1%). Thirty-three (5.7%) patients were diagnosed with more than one STD. Of these patients, 13 were seropositive for HIV, resulting in a prevalence of 2.12%. The epidemiological profile of STDs is ever changing, and this study found an increase in viral and fungal STDs and downward trend of bacterial STDs comparable to that of studies from other regions.

What Racism Has to Do with It: Understanding and Reducing Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Youth of Color.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are high in populations of color compared to Whites. High-risk sexual behaviors are widely viewed as the key contributors to the levels of STDs, especially in adolescents and young adults. This article situates the sexual risk behaviors of Black, Indigenous, and other young people of color within the framework of racism. It begins with an overview of racial inequities in common STDs and shows how racism gives rise to several risk factors for high-risk sexual behaviors. These risk factors for STDs identified in prior research are best understood as adaptations to the challenges and constraints faced by youth in socially disadvantaged environments. Both social adversity and the mental health problems that it triggers can lead to risky sexual behaviors. Drawing on findings from prior research with youth of color, this paper describes the needed interventions that can markedly reduce STDs and their risk factors. It also describes needed research on interventions that could contribute to the knowledge and understanding of the adverse conditions fueled by racism that affect youth of color, their health, and their communities.

Clinical patterns of sexually transmitted diseases in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals in a tertiary care center in South India.

Background:Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) synergize to aggravate the associated morbidity of each other in the human body.Aims:The aim was to study the pattern of presentations of STDs in patients with HIV.Materials and Methods:This study was conducted by selecting 100 consecutive cases of HIV infection with symptoms suggestive of co-existing STD attending the outpatient department in a tertiary care center in south India.Results:Most of the patients belonged to the age group of 26–30 years, with a slight male preponderance. Genital ulcer was the predominant presenting complaint (60%), followed by dysuria (32%) and genital growth (29%). Genital ulcer was the most common lesion (56%), followed by other genital lesions (37%) and extragenital lesions (18%). Among the investigations, Tzanck smear was most commonly seen positive (62.3% of 61 patients), followed by positive potassium hydroxide mount and Venereal Disease Research Laboratory. About 35.5% of the male patients and 60.53% of the female patients had multiple diagnoses. In males, herpes genitalis (29.76%) was the most common STD, followed by condyloma accuminata (23.08%). In females, candidal vulvovaginitis (28.12%) was the most common STD, followed by herpes genitalis (23.43%).Conclusion:Our study found genital ulcer as the most common symptom and sign of STD in HIV-infected patients. Herpes genitalis was the most common STD among males and candidal vulvovaginitis was the most common STD among females.

Sexual Dysfunction In Women Who Are Human Papillomavirus Positive

Female Sexual Dysfunction (FSD) is a prevalent disorder among women that has negative impacts on life quality. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common sexually-transmitted disease and has a negative emotional effect on women because of causing cervical cancer.

Changing trends in sexually transmitted diseases during a seven year period- A retrospective study in STD clinic of a tertiary care hospital

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) shows various trends in different parts of the country and constitute a major public health problem for both developing and developed countries. STD`s increases the risk of transmission of Human Immuno Deficiency virus (HIV) infection causing immense need to understand the patterns of STD`s prevailing in the regions of a country for proper planning and implementation of STD control strategies. To know the pattern of STDs and to analyze the changes during a 7 year period among patients attending the STD clinic at the tertiary care centre. A retrospective analysis of data collected from the clinical records of patients attending the STD clinic of a tertiary care hospital, Mysuru over a period of 7 years (from Jan 2010 to Dec 2016). During this 7 years period, a total of 1,98,991 patients attended Skin and STD Department on out-patient basis, among them 2,111(1.06%) were STD patients [1057 males and 1054 females]. Majority were married (89.86%). The most common STD in males was balanoposthitis (32.92%) and in females was vaginal /cervical discharge (28.42%). Among genital ulcer diseases herpes genitalis was most common and increased gradually while Syphillis and Chancroid declined during the study period. Gonococcal urethritis was seen among 4.69% and LGV only in 0.14% (3 cases). HIV seropositivity in the study population was 7.25%.Bacterial STD`s showed a gradual reduction in number while fungal and viral STD`s showed increasing trends.

Effects of short-term ambient air pollution exposure on HPV infections: A five-year hospital-based study.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are common sexually-transmitted diseases among reproductive-aged women with increasing concern. Until now, there are no prior study about the association between HPV infections and ambient air pollution. This study aimed to explore the relationship between short-term exposure to ambient pollutants and daily outpatient visits for HPV infections in China. Data of daily outpatient visits for HPV infections were obtained from January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2018 (1826 days). Over-dispersed Poisson generalized additive models were applied by adjusting weather conditions and day of the week. We identified a total of 39,746 cases for HPV infections. A 10 μg/m3 increase of PM10, PM2.5, SO2, and NO2 or a 0.1 mg/m3 rise of CO in concurrent day (lag 0) concentrations was related to an elevation of 0.822% (95% Cl: 0.282%, 1.36%), 1.05% (95% Cl: 0.280%, 1.81%), 5.72% (95% Cl: 1.79%, 9.65%), 5.02% (95% Cl: 3.45%, 6.60%), and 2.40% (95% Cl: 1.43%, 3.37%) in daily outpatient-visits for HPV infections, respectively. The association was more significant in those women aged 41 or over. As for 10 μg/m3 increase of O3, a −1.33% (95% Cl: −2.13%, −0.530%) change was observed on the lag 03 and such effects appeared to be more obvious in the aged 18–40 group. Our results provided the first evidence that short-term exposure to ambient pollutants was related to, which may be indirectly, the increased risk of HPV infections while O3 may act as a “protective” factor.

The Prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Patients with Sexually Transmitted Diseases.

Background:Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission pattern in Iran has been changed from injection drug to sexual contact. Lack of accurate assessment of HIV in people with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in Iran prompted us to conduct this study to determine the frequency of HIV infection in these patients.Materials and Methods:In this cross-sectional study which conducted in 2016–2017, overall, 190 patients with STDs referring to two hospitals of Hamadan were enrolled in the study. All of the patients were examined for HIV in the first visit by rapid test and then 1 and 4 months later by the 4th generation ELISA. A questionnaire including demographic data, clinical manifestations, and high-risk behaviors was completed for all of the referring people. The collected data were analyzed using appropriate statistical tests.Results:Of 190 patients, 126 (66.3%) were female with a mean age of 34.1 ± 10.1 years and 64 (33.7%) were male with a mean age of 30.8 ± 7.8 years. One hundred twenty-eight (67.4%) got married, 73 (38.4%) and 76 (40%) had a diploma and postgraduate education, respectively, 32 (16.8%) mentioned the history of unsafe sex, and 23 (12.1%) had used condoms continuously during sexual contacts. The most common STDs were reported genital warts, 107 patients (56.3%), vaginal discharge (28, 14.7%), and genital ulcer (33, 17.4%). Two (1%) patients were positive for HIV at the first visit.Conclusion:Patients with STDs should be considered as an important source of HIV transmission, so clinicians should pay more attention to screening these patients for HIV infection.

Human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and syphilis co-infections among patients with anogenital warts in Tabriz, Iran

Introduction: Genital infection with papilloma virus is the most common sexually-transmitted disease (STD). It is recommended that individuals who have a sexual risk factor, should be screened for syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B and C. However, this strategy is often not carried out in Iran. In the present study, patients with genital warts were screened for syphilis, HIV, and hepatitis B and C. Methods: We evaluated 311 patients with anogenital warts visiting dermatology clinics from June 2016 to June 2017. In addition, demographic data were collected using a pre-designed questionnaire. Patients who presented to Sina Hospital, Tabriz, Iran, were examined for HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C, urethral and vaginal discharge, and history of painful genital lesions, while patients presenting to Bahar Behavioral Disease Counseling Center of Tabriz were examined only for HIV. Data were analyzed using chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests via SPSS software. Results: Out of 263 cases with genital warts presenting to Sina Hospital, 1, 1, and 2 cases were positive for HIV, syphilis, and hepatitis B, respectively. At the same time, one of the patients presenting to Bahar Center showed HIV infection. Conclusion: We found two HIV-positive, two hepatitis B virus (HBV)-positive, and one syphilis cases in 311 patients with genital warts, so it is recommended to assess these tests routinely in high-risk individuals with genital warts, including multi-partner and addicted patients.

Heterosexual Anal and Oral Sex in Adolescents and Adults in the United States, 2011-2015.

Heterosexual anal and oral sex are related to the acquisition and transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). As common reportable STDs (chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis) in the United States are increasing, it is important to understand recent oral and anal sexual behaviors. We examined the prevalence and correlates of heterosexual anal and oral sex, associated condom use, and having multiple partners among men and women aged 15 to 44 years. Approximately one third of women and men had ever engaged in anal sex, including 11% of adolescents (15-19 years). Most women and men had ever received or given oral sex (at >75%). Six percent and 7% of women and men, respectively, used a condom at last oral sex compared with 20% and 30% who used a condom at last anal sex. Having multiple sex partners in the past year was most common among adolescents, never or formerly married persons, and those who had a nonmonogamous partner. Less than 10% reported multiple anal sex partners in the past year. A substantial minority had multiple oral or anal sex partners; black women and men had the highest reports of oral sex partners by race/ethnicity. Anal and oral sex are common sexual practices. Given the low rates of condom use during these behaviors, it is important that recommendations for sexual risk assessments are followed. Tailored messaging regarding risk for STD and human immunodeficiency virus acquisition during oral and anal sex may benefit adolescents, singles, and divorced individuals. Future discussions regarding the benefits of extragenital STD testing for heterosexuals may be useful.

Trichomonas vaginalis and Chlamydia trachomatis co-infections

Trichomonas vaginalis and Chlamydia trachomatis co-infections

Diamine derivative anti-Trichomonas vaginalis and anti-Tritrichomonas foetus activities by effect on polyamine metabolism

Human and bovine trichomoniasis are sexually transmitted diseases (STD) caused by Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus, respectively. Human trichomoniasis is the most common non-viral STD in the world and bovine trichomoniasis causes significant economic losses to breeders. Considering the significant impact of the infections caused by these protozoa and the treatment failures, the search for new therapeutic alternatives becomes crucial. In this study the effect of diamines and amino alcohols in the in vitro viability of trichomonads was evaluated. Screening demonstrated the high activity of diamine 4 against these protozoa. Although cytotoxicity against HMVII cell line and slight hemolysis were observed in vitro, the compound showed no toxic effect on the Galleria mellonella in vivo model. Importantly, diamine 4 was active against both trichomonads species at 6h and 24h of incubation, and these effects was reverted by putrescine, a polyamine, suggesting competition for the same metabolic pathway. These findings indicate that the mechanism of action of diamine 4 is through the polyamine metabolism, a pathway distinct from that presented by metronidazole, the drug usually used to treat trichomoniasis and to which resistance is widely reported. These data demonstrate the importance of diamines as potential novel candidates as anti-T. vaginalis and anti-T. foetus agents.

Study of prevalence of sexually transmitted infections/human immunodeficiency virus and condom use among male-to-female transgender: A retrospective analysis from a tertiary care hospital in Chennai.

A "Transgender" person is one who dresses as, desires to be, has undergone surgery to become or identifies with opposite sex. They have a higher risk of sexually transmitted infection (STI) due to a combination of biological and social reasons. They have risky sexual behaviors but low-risk perception. The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of STI/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in transgender (TG) and association with condom use. A retrospective study of 82 male-to-female TGs attending our sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic from 2011 to 2014 was undertaken. Detailed history including sexual exposure, high-risk practices, and condom usage was obtained, and clinical examination for any evidence of STI was done. They were screened for the presence of STI/HIV and other appropriate investigations were done whenever required. Retrospective analysis was used. In our study, the total prevalence of STI/HIV in the studied population was 48.8% which was considerably higher than the prevalence in the general population which was 5.4%. Promiscuity rate of TGs studied was 45%, 33% of them were male sex workers. Syphilis was the most common STD, followed by HIV, genital warts, and gonorrhea. The prevalence of condom use was 45.1%, and the prevalence of STI/HIV in the condom used TGs was 14.6%. Based on the above findings, the TG group is found to have a higher prevalence of HIV/STI despite the higher use of condoms which is mostly attributable to the lack of correct and consistent use of condoms. This stresses upon the importance of promoting the condom usage and knowledge, and also this group should be the focus of intensive intervention programs aimed at STI screening and treatment, reduction of risky sexual behavior, and promotion of HIV counseling and testing.

Study of prevalence of sexually transmitted infections/human immunodeficiency virus and condom use among male-to-female transgender: A retrospective analysis from a tertiary care hospital in Chennai

Context:A “Transgender” person is one who dresses as, desires to be, has undergone surgery to become or identifies with opposite sex. They have a higher risk of sexually transmitted infection (STI) due to a combination of biological and social reasons. They have risky sexual behaviors but low-risk perception.Aims:The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of STI/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in transgender (TG) and association with condom use.Settings and Design:A retrospective study of 82 male-to-female TGs attending our sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic from 2011 to 2014 was undertaken.Subjects and Methods:Detailed history including sexual exposure, high-risk practices, and condom usage was obtained, and clinical examination for any evidence of STI was done. They were screened for the presence of STI/HIV and other appropriate investigations were done whenever required.Statistical Analysis Used:Retrospective analysis was used.Results:In our study, the total prevalence of STI/HIV in the studied population was 48.8% which was considerably higher than the prevalence in the general population which was 5.4%. Promiscuity rate of TGs studied was 45%, 33% of them were male sex workers. Syphilis was the most common STD, followed by HIV, genital warts, and gonorrhea. The prevalence of condom use was 45.1%, and the prevalence of STI/HIV in the condom used TGs was 14.6%.Conclusion:Based on the above findings, the TG group is found to have a higher prevalence of HIV/STI despite the higher use of condoms which is mostly attributable to the lack of correct and consistent use of condoms. This stresses upon the importance of promoting the condom usage and knowledge, and also this group should be the focus of intensive intervention programs aimed at STI screening and treatment, reduction of risky sexual behavior, and promotion of HIV counseling and testing.

Trichomonas vaginalis: An Updated Overview Towards Diagnostic Improvement.

The protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) is responsible for trichomonosis, a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with a significant incidence worldwide. This infection is one of the most common non-viral STDs, representing almost 50% of all curable STDs. Trichomonosis has an incidence of 180 million new cases worldwide. Nowadays, the 'gold standard' for TV diagnosis remains the use of in vitro cultures combined with daily visual microscopic evaluations, which is a time-consuming and low sensitive method. Recent diagnostic methodologies include imunocromatographic assays and molecular biology techniques. The use of the latter has improved enormously the sensitivity and specificity of TV diagnosis, despite, however, none being unable to identify the presence of live parasites. By understanding the biology, the pathogenesis, the proteomic profile and its relation with the parasite's virulence mechanisms, new possibilities towards diagnostic techniques can arise. This review covers various important aspects of vaginal trichomonosis from the parasite's biology and virulence to recent improvements in diagnostic techniques and also metabolic and protein discoveries.