Common Building Materials Research Articles

On the Cementitious Mixtures Reinforced with Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate.

The last decade was dominated by a serious problem that now affects all the planet's natural ecosystems: the increasing growth of plastics and microplastics that are difficult to dispose of. One strategy to mitigate this problem is to close the life cycle of one of them-polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-by reusing it within the most common building materials, such as mortars and concretes. The reuse of PET waste as aggregates also allows us to limit the CO2 emissions released during the production of natural aggregates. This paper analyzes the outcomes of many studies carried out on the characteristics of cementitious mixtures reinforced with waste PET material. Many researchers have demonstrated how PET used as reinforcement of mortars and concretes can produce an increase in the mechanical strengths of the corresponding cementitious mixtures without PET. The tensile strength of this resin is higher than that of concrete; so, by combining the two materials it is possible to obtain a mixture with an overall higher tensile strength, resulting in increased flexural strength and reduced cracking. Using an effective size of PET fibers, it is possible to achieve an increase in the ductility and toughness of the cementitious mixture. Several studies reveal that PET reinforcement reduces the density with a consequent decrease in weight and structural loads, while the workability increases using spherical and smoother PET aggregates.

Dense ceramics by cold reaction sintering using 95 % powdered construction and demolition waste and sodium silicate

This work explores the feasibility of producing ceramic-like materials from recycled construction and demolition waste through cold reaction sintering using sodium silicate as the liquid medium. The recycled material consists of a mixture of ceramics, mortar, and/or plasterboard - common building materials. Samples containing 95 wt% of recycled content were successfully fabricated at 150 ºC, a considerably lower temperature compared to conventional ceramic processes. These samples exhibited dense microstructures with relative densities of ∼ 90 %, as well as promising mechanical properties, including Vickers hardness values comparable to conventional bricks. In particular, samples with 30 % non-ceramic material showed more than twice the hardness when mortar was incorporated. Leaching tests confirmed the chemical stability of the material, with the incorporation of Ca²⁺ ions into non-leachable species, suggesting a reaction during CRS that enhances its durability. Additionally, FTIR analysis showed a blueshift in the signature from 973 cm⁻¹ to 1041 cm⁻¹ under more aggressive conditions, indicating structural changes and improved leachability. The primary advantage of this process would lie in the high recycled content used to create materials. This proposed new method allows obtaining dense pieces at very low temperatures, which also supposes a reduction of energy consumption, and therefore, an improvement of the sustainability of the production process. Given that this construction and demolition waste are often limited to not high added values, this approach not only supports environmental sustainability and resource conservation but also offers a viable pathway to decarbonizing the ceramic industry.

Development and characterisation of novel compressed earth bricks bio-sourced with raw and treated alpha fibres

In this research, the effect of using alpha fibres on the physico-mechanical properties of compressed earth bricks (CEBs) was investigated. CEBs were produced using soil, lime and different amounts (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%) of raw (RAF) or treated alpha fibres (TAF). First, the diameter, density and water absorption of RAF and TAF were determined. Then, the produced CEBs reinforced by these fibres were subjected to compressive strength, thermal test, density and capillarity water absorption tests. The obtained results showed that the addition of RAF and TAF leads to a reduction of the thermal conductivity by 33% and 31%, respectively. The finding also indicated that the density was decreased by 26% and 17% with the inclusion of TAF and RAF respectively. Besides, the compressive strength was reduced and water absorption coefficient was increased when fibres reinforced CEBs but remaining within the standard’s recommended limits. Moreover, the addition of fibre improves the acoustic properties of samples by 98%. The CEBs developed in this paper could be an alternative to other more common building materials, which would lead to a reduction of energy demand and environmental problems.

USE OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD PAVEMENTS

Problem statement. Ukraine, on its way to European integration, faces the challenge not only of joining the European Union, but also of adapting its infrastructure to high European quality standards. After the end of the war, it is necessary not only to rebuild the destroyed roads, aerodromes and buildings, but also to guarantee the sustainability and durability of infrastructure facilities. One of the key industries where innovations can make a significant difference is road construction. Asphalt and concrete are the most common building materials in the construction of flexible and rigid pavements. Innovative technologies for repairing cracks in asphalt and concrete road pavements are constantly evolving. New methods and materials are being sought for more efficient and long-term maintenance of the road surface. The use of advanced technologies allows us to improve the quality of repairs, extend the service life of roads and reduce their environmental impact. Innovative approaches to crack repair help to ensure safety and comfort on the road for all road users. The purpose of the article is to analyze foreign experience in the application of effective innovative technologies in the construction of road pavements and to substantiate the feasibility of using a self-healing top layer of flexible and rigid asphalt and concrete pavements in Ukraine based on the analysis of their properties. Conclusions. The inclusion of self-healing properties in asphalt concrete pavements is an effective method for increasing their service life and achieving environmental friendliness of pavements. Existing and advanced self-healing technologies suitable for use in asphalt pavements, namely, the inclusion of healing agents, induction heating, and hybrid technologies, have been investigated. The mechanisms of self-healing of concrete have been studied: autogenous, based on autonomous bacteria, and based on autonomous capsules. Research on self-healing pavements is aimed at developing a smart and efficient pavement system capable of self-assessment and automated crack repair. The choice of technology should be based on its ability to effectively repair damage and cracks in asphalt and concrete, providing long-term and reliable protection.

Data-driven evaluation of building materials using Ground Penetrating Radar

Ground Penetrating Radar is a widely used technology in the nondestructive evaluation and monitoring of structures during repair and maintenance phases. Within this domain, a critical focus lies in assessing layered structures such as building envelopes. Evaluating attributes like thickness and material type in layered structures traditionally demands labor-intensive manual efforts involving calculations of dielectric properties and extensive signal processing. This study addresses these challenges by leveraging machine learning data-driven models that harness the entire recorded waveform, presenting a potential breakthrough for expediting diagnostic monitoring within the construction industry. We evaluate both supervised and unsupervised machine learning models for classification and regression tasks predicting the properties of common building materials. Experimental GPR A-scans serve as input for these models, with a thorough evaluation of both instance-based and parametric modeling approaches. A detection accuracy of 100% is achieved for identifying outlier scans, while material classification accuracy is 85%. Layer thickness predictions also had a high accuracy, with a typical error of 5%. Additionally, we explore the impact of feature learning and other preprocessing strategies on model performance. Our findings demonstrate the suitability of standard data-driven models for a spectrum of supervised learning tasks for layered structure diagnostics. However, we emphasize the importance of careful attention to the distribution of training data and its relevance to intended use in the field.

Neutralization of ricin toxin on building interior surfaces using liquid decontaminants.

Ricin is a highly toxic protein, capable of inhibiting protein synthesis within cells, and is produced from the beans of the Ricinus communis (castor bean) plant. Numerous recent incidents involving ricin have occurred, many in the form of mailed letters resulting in both building and mail sorting facility contamination. The goal of this study was to assess the decontamination efficacy of several commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) cleaners and decontaminants (solutions of sodium hypochlorite [bleach], quaternary ammonium, sodium percarbonate, peracetic acid, and hydrogen peroxide) against a crude preparation of ricin toxin. The ricin was inoculated onto four common building materials (pine wood, drywall joint tape, countertop laminate, and industrial carpet), and the decontaminants were applied to the test coupons using a handheld sprayer. Decontamination efficacy was quantified using an in-vitro cytotoxicity assay to measure the quantity of bioactive ricin toxin extracted from test coupons as compared to the corresponding positive controls (not sprayed with decontaminant). Results showed that decontamination efficacy varied by decontaminant and substrate material, and that efficacy generally improved as the number of spray applications or contact time increased. The solutions of 0.45% peracetic acid and the 20,000-parts per million (ppm) sodium hypochlorite provided the overall best decontamination efficacy. The 0.45% peracetic acid solution achieved 97.8 to 99.8% reduction with a 30-min contact time.

Development of building stock model for an emerging city in India: Learnings for enabling circular economy in the built environment

AbstractThis study explores the prospects of urban mining for a steadily developing city “Thane,” located in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region of India, through building material stock accounting (BMSA). A novel bottom‐up approach for stock accounting was developed for the cities with limited data availability, through the integration of geodata spatial analysis, archetype identification through statistical modeling, and regional building design assessment for material intensity calculation. This study is the first of its kind in the Indian context and focuses on the stock estimation of the most common building materials: concrete, reinforcement steel, and masonry bricks within the boundaries of a typical Indian urban area. The results showed that the total built‐up stock in Thane city in 2018 amounts to 84.7 million metric ton (MT) by weight; concrete 57.7%, bricks 40.4%, steel 1.9%. Such reservoirs of raw material can be harnessed to fulfill the future material requirements of the construction industry through proposed circular economy interventions such as material bank creation, local recycling facilities, and development of a secondary material market. The material stock estimated in this study was 46.1 MT/capita for permanent building dwellers and with potential infrastructural developments underway, urban mining application can be ensured by redefining design and demolition strategies and multi‐level collaboration for generating alternative material sources for the construction sector. This work of BMSA intends to provide meaningful insights into exploring the potentials of urban mining and help chart the future roadmaps of sustainable construction in India.

Performance Analysis of Application of BIM Technology and Two-Way Progressive Optimization Algorithm in Energy-Saving Design of Residential Buildings Based on BIM Technology

The current residential energy-saving design is lagging behind, and lack of systematic design methods and scientific technical means seriously restricts process of improving quality of residential buildings in China. With development and application of digital information technology in construction field, BIM technology has brought new opportunities construction industry, and building performance data has become information basis for scientific promotion of energy conservation. This paper uses BIM technology as a platform to establish an information base of common building materials and components in Chongqing through literature research, field studies, summarization, and application practice, and to help architects make wise decisions at early design stage by using "one-click" scheme comparison and design evaluation to avoid a large number of potential energy consumption problems at a later stage, It greatly improves energy efficiency and design quality of buildings.

Effect of mPCMs on the properties of whisker-reinforced PG-based composites

Phase-change energy-storage building materials prepared by applying phase-change materials (PCMs) to building materials have the advantages of both common building materials and PCMs. The composites can help regulate the indoor temperature, while the introduction of phase-change microcapsule (mPCM) technology can make up for the shortcomings of traditional PCMs. Therefore, in this study, two different mPCMs were blended into whisker-reinforced β-hemihydrate phosphogypsum (β-HPG)-based composites to prepare a new lightweight thermal insulation and energy-storage building material, which improves the thermal performance of the building material while improving the utilization rate of phosphogypsum to a certain extent. In this study, the mechanical, thermal conductivity and energy-storage properties of the new building material were investigated through performance tests and compared with those of β-HPG-based composites without doped PCMs, The results showed that both PCMs could improve the mechanical strength of the materials. The incorporation of mPCMs increased the thermal conductivity and decreased the water absorption of the composites. In addition, the thermogravimetric–differential scanning calorimetry analysis showed that the addition of mPCMs improved the thermal storage properties of the composites, and the two mPCMs and their composites have good thermal stability and can be used in construction materials.

Mechanical and Thermal Effects of Using Fine Recycled PET Aggregates in Common Screeds

The increasing consumption of plastics has necessitated the need to find a sustainable solution to reuse PET within common building materials. Recycled PET reinforcement would reduce plastic waste that is difficult to dispose of and CO2 emissions, representing a sustainable solution for generating lighter building materials. The goal of this work was to define a new cementitious mixture design and to study the mechanical and thermal behavior of three typologies of screeds with fine recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) aggregates. A weight percentage of PET of 1%, 2%, and 3% was used. The test results for sustainable screeds (S-Screeds) with waste PET were compared with a reference screed without the addition of plastic. In the fresh state, the workability and the air content were measured, while in the hardened state, the density, thermal conductivity, and compressive and flexural strength were investigated. These properties showed improvement for some tested S-Screeds after the introduction of fine (a few millimeters in size) and irregularly shaped waste plastic aggregates. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed the presence of a release surface between the cementitious mixtures and the plastic material, even if the mechanical interaction between the matrix and PET still existed.

Analysis of Sectoral Environmental Product Declarations as a Data Source for Life Cycle Assessment

The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is becoming increasingly prevalent in the quantification of the environmental status in the building sector following new legislative frameworks. Countries need to quantify and assess their environmental impacts as a previous step to regulation and decision-making. In this context, based on a consensus with manufacturers, standardized national data sets are being developed, referred to as sectoral environmental product declarations (EPDs). This study assesses these EPDs with the aim of providing relevant information for global decision-making, focusing on their consistency and shortcomings. An assessment was carried out at both the national level, considering all sectoral EPDs and declared products, and at the international level, with three common building materials (brick, steel, and concrete). The results highlight the lack of traceability in the development and assessment of uncertainty, resulting in substantial discrepancies in reported impacts, especially in the later stages of the life cycle (up to 90% difference). Meanwhile, impacts such as global warming potential or total renewable and non-renewable primary energy use show homogeneous values in the cradle-to-gate stages, with differences generally being under 10%. The analysis of sectoral EPDs should act as a guideline for designing buildings with environmental sustainability criteria, as the last section of this study attempts to highlight.

Water uptake of porous building materials with extremely small air entrapment effects

When a porous material is near capillary saturation, entrapped air is expected to affect water transfer through the pores. Based on the results of water absorption tests at reduced air pressure, Janssen et al. (Energy Procedia, 2015) demonstrated that air entrapment prevents water absorption above capillary saturation. In this study, to understand the air entrapment effects on water transfer in the high-water-saturation region, we further examined the water transfer characteristics corresponding to extremely small air entrapment effects. First, using three common porous building materials, water uptake experiments were conducted at low air pressure near vacuum (several kilopascals), and the time evolution of the water absorption was measured. The results show that low air pressure accelerates water uptake by brick and aerated concrete specimens, whereas the water uptake by calcium silicate board specimens is not significantly affected. These differences among the materials are discussed from the viewpoint of the pore structure. Furthermore, the results of simultaneous water and air transfer calculations confirm that air entrapment and pressure development in the pores can significantly reduce the rate of water uptake and the water content that a material can reach after capillary absorption.

Acoustic Performance and Lifecycle Assessment of Common Building Materials: A Comparative Case Analysis

Motivated by the Hong Kong Climate Action Plan 2050, a lifecycle case analysis assessment of various typical construction materials often proposed for acoustic purposes has been performed. The findings have been analysed and a metric has been explored which assesses a material's combined value based on its sound insulation ability and carbon emissions produced by its use in a project.

A comparative approach to evaluate the toxicity of building materials through life cycle assessment

BackgroundThis paper addresses the lack of research that compares the toxicity of commonly used construction materials. The toxicity of construction materials has received less attention, despite its importance within the Life Cycle Assessment methodology. All aspects, including toxicity, need to be analysed throughout the life cycle of the material to understand its true behaviour. AimThe purpose of this study is to propose a methodology to compare the toxicity of different construction materials and highlight the need to consider toxicity criteria in the selection of materials during the design phase. The study seeks to fill the gap in the existing literature by providing information on the comparative toxicity of the most common building materials. MethodologyThe study follows Life Cycle Assessment methodology as established by the ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006 standards. For this study, statistics were consulted to identify the most used materials in the construction sector; then, from this group of materials, those available in the Ecoinvent 3.7.1 database were selected. For comparison, these materials were categorised into material families and a functional unit was established to compare them. Finally, all materials were compared with each other, using 1 kg as the functional unit. ResultsWhen we conduct a comparative analysis of various materials and categorise them into groups, it becomes readily apparent which materials demonstrate a less favourable performance with respect to their toxic properties. This approach allows us to discern and pinpoint those materials that present a more concerning level of toxicity relative to others, facilitating informed decision-making in terms of construction material selection and design. ConclusionsBy comparing all materials with each other using 1 kg as the functional unit, we can conclude that some materials have a greater impact than others, both in absolute and relative terms, for example, steel and polyurethane foam.

Soil cement brick production process: literature review

Soil-cement brick is one of the most common building materials for masonry construction, although it is not the oldest. As it is a product made up basically of soil and cement, it has existed in Brazil since the appearance of cement. The brick has been gaining market share due to several characteristics: ease of production, as it can be produced at the construction site itself, ease of obtaining raw material, as the soils exist in all locations, low processing costs, and easy handling. In addition, the soil-cement brick, also called ecological brick, stands out for not harming the environment like the ceramic brick that needs to be burned. Despite being a standardized product, production procedures and properties need to be updated. As an example, the soil used is very coarse which makes it difficult for the components to react. After conformation, the cure is still carried out without humidification, not obtaining adequate resistance. Furthermore, durability has been little studied. Thus, this article presents a literature review based on research in the production of soil-cement bricks. Materials and research methods used in the process of making soil-cement bricks, as well as various properties, are discussed. The most common results are grouped. The literature review showed that the production process is well defined, although it needs improvement. As for material properties, they meet the standards. However, the entire process needs more research.

The use and re-use of timber structure elements, within a waste hierarchy concept, as a tool towards circular economy for buildings

Wood is the only natural renewable building material, produced by photosynthesis. It has the ability to preserve the stored carbon in its molecular structure as long as it remains within a structure. Timber dwellings are re-gaining recognition worldwide, especially in remote areas due to their aesthetic superiority, durability and harmony with the natural landscape. Research findings, as well as industrial operations indicate that timber buildings present beneficial environmental impacts, compared to other common building materials. Specifically, timber has substantial strength characteristics, low embodied energy, less CO2 emissions and also an easy and fast construction, combined with minimum disruption to the environment. Moreover, timber buildings have a high potential to reduce waste at site and ability for re-use, when designed for future ease of deconstruction, providing the repeated utilization of the used material, known as, the cascading concept. It is already recognized that successful waste management is a measure towards the containment of climate change. Using timber structures enhances the chances to accomplish the contemporary waste hierarchy concept, which can be implemented according to the application of Design for Deconstruction and Reuse (DfDR) concept, at an early stage. These waste management techniques are strongly related to circular economy, but can only be achieved through the aim of a long-lasting design. Finally, in most countries, the existing building codes should be revised in order to overcome the imposed limitations on the re-use of building materials.

Measured Reflection and Transmission Properties of Building Materials for Indoor THz Communication

The knowledge of reflection and transmission properties of building materials is crucial for understanding radio propagation and developing efficient channel models in terahertz (THz) indoor wireless communication. In this letter, such fundamental interaction mechanisms for five common building materials at 219-224 GHz are extensively investigated through experimental measurement campaign, including glass, granite, polyvinyl chloride board, ceramic, and wooden board. Measured results indicate that the reflection coefficients gradually decrease with the increasing of incident angle, whereas the transmission coefficients show weaker angle dependence. In particular, we compare the measured results with those at 40-50 GHz and investigate different characteristics of the materials at the two frequency ranges. Furthermore, the complex permittivity is extracted using least squares fitting methods based on measured reflection coefficients. The results presented in this letter can offer guidance to channel modeling at 220 GHz for indoor low-THz communication.

Flexural behavior of the untreated plain bamboo reinforced concrete beam under four-point loading

Population growth demands shelter, housing, and other infrastructure for utilities and safety. Daily materials like steel, cement, etc. are becoming more expensive. Engineers must use more common and sustainable building materials due to climate, cost, and natural resource depletion. Bamboo is light and fast-growing and is six times the strength-to-weight ratio of steel. Bamboo’s irregular form may be treated with precision and design. In this experimental study, the Dendrocalamus Strictus bamboo is used for the purpose of investigation to highlight the reinforcement nature of bamboo species and analyze its responses to specific loading conditions. The research compared concrete beams reinforced with Dendrocalamus Strictus bamboo to steel-reinforced concrete beams. Untreated bamboo is wrapped in steel wires for friction. This document discusses bamboo, steel reinforcements, and concrete mix parameters for 14 cm × 15 cm × 110 cm beams. This study work discusses the first crack load, ultimate load, load–deflection, and flexural strength of Bamboo Reinforced Concrete (BRC) beams and Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) beams under four-point loading. BRC’s initial crack load is 19kN. The ultimate load of the BRC beam and RCC beam were equivalent after 14 and 28 days. The BRC beam deflected more than the RCC beam. Bamboo with suitable engineering designs and chemical treatment to reduce water absorption may give superior strength and substitute steel for low-cost homes and shelters.

Where to focus? Developing a LCA impact category selection tool for manufacturers of building materials

Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been widely applied to improve the environmental performance of the building sector. However, due to the complexity of LCA results including the multitude of impact categories, decision makers of the building materials manufacturing industry are grappling with allocating their limited resources to the most influential impact categories. The aim of this article, therefore, is to propose an impact category selection tool that enables performance improvement of building materials without sacrificing the validity of LCA results. The developed method selects common building materials, and defines foreground processes that can be influenced by manufacturers of building materials and background processes that can hardly be impacted using the US Input-Output database. Following the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) analysis with the ReCiPe2016 Midpoint method, our results indicate that, among the 18 impact categories of the ReCiPe2016 Midpoint method, Global Warming Potential, Ozone Formation and Human Health, Fine Particulate Matter Formation, Ozone Formation and Terrestrial Ecosystems, Terrestrial Acidification, and Terrestrial Ecotoxicity should be considered the first priority group while Ionizing Radiation, Freshwater Eutrophication, Marine Eutrophication, Freshwater Ecotoxicity, Water Consumption should be placed in the last priority group. It further suggests that by shifting the limited available resources to the first priority group, decision makers can readily improve the environmental performance of building materials during the manufacturing process. The contribution of the proposed selection tool lies in that it can be adapted by decision makers to different geographical contexts, LCIA methods, and building materials to efficiently ameliorate the environmental performance of the building sector.

Shake table tests on 1:2 reduced scale masonry house with the application of horizontal seismic bands

The safety of people's lives is crucial in structures that provide shelter. Earthquakes are a major natural disaster that have claimed thousands of lives over the years, but other factors can also cause damage to these structures. Building collapses are often due to their inability to endure the seismic loading, not the earthquake itself. Most residential buildings are masonry structures. There are many strategies for enhancing structural behavior, but very little research has been done on masonry structures, which house about 1/3rd of the world's population. This study focuses on characterization of seismic response using shake table tests to assess the dynamic behavior of masonry structures when horizontal seismic bands are applied. Horizontal seismic band is one of the traditional techniques used in masonry structure. Three reduced scale models were constructed with one using a reinforced concrete band, one with a timber band, and one without a band. All models were constructed using extruded earth block and mud mortar, common building materials in developing nations. The models were tested on a shake table using the same loading signal to compare their response behavior. A high-speed camera was also used to capture images; accelerometers and displacement sensors were installed to record the response. Digital Image Correlation (DIC), which provides non-contact optical measurement, has been essential in obtaining full-field measurement. The results showed significant improvement in the seismic response of structures with horizontal seismic bands. The behaviors are compared in terms of natural frequency, damping, energy dissipation, and crack propagation patterns using two types of materials as seismic bands.