Common Answer Research Articles

System 2 Thinking in OpenAI’s o1-Preview Model: Near-Perfect Performance on a Mathematics Exam

The processes underlying human cognition are often divided into System 1, which involves fast, intuitive thinking, and System 2, which involves slow, deliberate reasoning. Previously, large language models were criticized for lacking the deeper, more analytical capabilities of System 2. In September 2024, OpenAI introduced the o1 model series, designed to handle System 2-like reasoning. While OpenAI’s benchmarks are promising, independent validation is still needed. In this study, we tested the o1-preview model twice on the Dutch ‘Mathematics B’ final exam. It scored a near-perfect 76 and 74 out of 76 points. For context, only 24 out of 16,414 students in the Netherlands achieved a perfect score. By comparison, the GPT-4o model scored 66 and 62 out of 76, well above the Dutch students’ average of 40.63 points. Neither model had access to the exam figures. Since there was a risk of model contamination (i.e., the knowledge cutoff for o1-preview and GPT-4o was after the exam was published online), we repeated the procedure with a new Mathematics B exam that was published after the cutoff date. The results again indicated that o1-preview performed strongly (97.8th percentile), which suggests that contamination was not a factor. We also show that there is some variability in the output of o1-preview, which means that sometimes there is ‘luck’ (the answer is correct) or ‘bad luck’ (the output has diverged into something that is incorrect). We demonstrate that the self-consistency approach, where repeated prompts are given and the most common answer is selected, is a useful strategy for identifying the correct answer. It is concluded that while OpenAI’s new model series holds great potential, certain risks must be considered.

Anatomical theater or full digitization? Students' assessment and preferences in the field of anatomy teaching.

For many years, teaching of anatomy has been based on traditional forms of teaching, but innovative solutions are currently being implemented on a large scale around the world. The COVID-19 pandemic and distance learning have influenced the development of new technologies in teaching. The study was conducted among medical students who studied anatomy in the year preceding the analysis when the restrictions related to the pandemic had been lifted. The questionnaire contained 10 questions with YES/NO answers and a modified 10-point Likert scale. The data was subjected to statistical analysis performed in R studio using the R programming language. 650 respondents were included in the analysis. Students assessed the modernization of anatomy departments to be unsatisfactory - on a 10-point scale, the most common answer was 2 - the average was 2.69. At the same time, they assessed the accessibility of knowledge as acceptable - median 6, with an average of 5.58. 75.38% of respondents did not use virtual reality technology, 75.69% did not use a 3D printing. 92.5% did not work with a virtual anatomical table. The vast majority of students claim that new technologies will be useful in their future clinical practice. New technologies are still rarely used in the teaching of anatomy, despite an increasing availability of such solutions and the conviction of students about the validity of implementing innovations in their future clinical practice. It seems reasonable to enable cooperation between the traditional forms of learning and the modern ones.

Decision trees for determining the fate of laboratory animals.

Facilities involved in laboratory animal research often face ethical challenges such as: what should I do with the animals that are no longer suitable for experimental purposes? One of the common answers to this question is to kill them. And while numerous scientifically justifiable reasons exist for killing laboratory animals, we must not overlook our ethical responsibility towards these sentient beings. Animal facility managers and scientists frequently find themselves in a moral dilemma, torn between furthering their research and addressing the well-being of experimental animals required for their studies. We elaborated a concept consisting of six decision trees and recommendations for making informed decisions about the need to kill laboratory animals in research facilities, considering legal and ethical considerations. The concept is based on the German regulatory perspective. However, the measures and decisions for animal welfare can be implemented in all laboratory animal facilities. These recommendations suggest several courses of action, including implementing consistent breeding plans, exploring alternative uses, reassigning surplus animals and their organs, and establishing appropriate housing capacity limits that ensure species-appropriate care. We encourage scientists and animal facility managers to develop and implement decision-making frameworks and procedures tailored to their specific facilities, in the hope that this work will promote a thoughtful and responsible approach to the complex challenges associated with the killing of laboratory animals, advancing scientific progress and the humane treatment of these animals.

Lingual frenotomy for ankyloglossia in infants with breastfeeding difficulties: a longitudinal observational study.

Ankyloglossia, or tongue-tie, is a variation in the anatomy of the lingual frenulum that restricts tongue movement. It is recognised as a cause of breastfeeding difficulty. We prospectively collected data from a specialist tongue-tie assessment clinic and evaluated mothers' experience using a questionnaire. We prospectively collected data from the specialist tongue-tie assessment clinic from January 2023 to October 2023 to assess factors that may influence a lingual frenotomy in an infant. Mothers were invited to complete two questionnaires, one baseline in the clinic waiting room and one follow-up, 4weeks after their clinic visit. These self-reported questionnaires assessed breastfeeding challenges, the mother's motivation for seeking an opinion regarding ankyloglossia, and the continuity of breastfeeding 4weeks following the clinic visit. During these 10months, 157 infants attended the clinic, and 96 frenotomies were performed. One hundred one participants completed baseline questionnaires, and 34 participants completed follow-up questionnaires. When mothers were asked why they wanted their baby assessed for a tongue-tie, the most common answers were difficulty with latch and nipple pain, reported by 45% and 40%, respectively. The average reported pain while breastfeeding was scored at 2.53, graded from 0 to 5 in the baseline questionnaire. This improved to 1.47 amongst women whose infants had a frenotomy. Conclusion: Our study suggests that performing a frenotomy in infants diagnosed with ankyloglossia may positively impact breastfeeding.

Haptic experience to significantly motivate anatomy learning in medical students

BackgroundCurrently, multiple tools exist to teach and learn anatomy, but finding an adequate activity is challenging. However, it can be achieved through haptic experiences, where motivation is the means of a significant learning process. This study aimed to evaluate a haptic experience to determine if a tactile and painting with color marker interactive experience, established a better learning process in comparison to the traditional 2D workshop on printed paper with photographs.MethodsPlaster bone models of the scapulae, humerus and clavicle were elaborated from a computerized scan tomography. Second year undergraduate medical students were invited to participate, where subjects were randomly assigned to the traditional 2D method or the 3D plaster bone model. A third group decided not to join any workshop. Following, all three groups were evaluated on bone landmarks and view, laterality, muscle insertions and functions. 2D and 3D workshop students were asked their opinion in a focus group and answered a survey regarding the overall perception and learning experience. Evaluation grades are presented as mean ± standard deviation, and answers from the survey are presented as percentages.ResultsThe survey demonstrated the students in the 3D model graded the experience as outstanding, and in five out of the six questions, answers were very good or excellent. In contrast, for students participating in the 2D workshop the most common answers were fair or good. The exception was the answer regarding the quiz, where both groups considered it good, despite the average among all groups not being a passing grade.ConclusionsTo learn the anatomy of the shoulder, the conventional methodology was compared with a haptic experience, where plaster bone models were used, enabling students to touch and paint on them. Based on the focus group and survey this study revealed the 3D workshop was an interactive experience where, the sense of touch and painting greatly contributed to their learning process. Even though this activity was useful in terms of learning bone landmarks, view muscle insertions, and establish relations, further activities must be developed to increase their understanding regarding their function, and its relevance in a clinical setting.

What Do Younger and Well-Educated Adults Think about Self-Medication? Results of a Survey during a Public Science Event at Leipzig University.

Consecutive visitors to a public science event at Leipzig University were asked about their opinions/attitudes regarding their personal use of self-medication. A written questionnaire survey addressed (i) participants' characteristics, (ii) frequency of self-medication use in the last 12 months, (iii) symptoms/complaints most frequently considered applicable, (iv) preconditions, (v) limitations, (vi) risks, (vii) fears, (viii) medication information sources, (ix) influencing factors, and (x) reasons for decision making. (i) A total of 189 visitors (median age: 29.0 years; Q25/Q75: 22.0/44.0) participated, of whom 64.0% were female, 38.6% had a university degree, 20.1% were in training, and 14.8% were licensed in a healthcare profession. (ii) A total of 59.3% of participants stated that they had used self-medication regularly in the last 12 months. The most common answers in the respective questions were (iii) headache, 86.2%; (iv) mild complaints/symptoms, 94.7%; (v) duration, 91.6%; (vi) "self-medication may cause adverse drug reactions", 94.2%; (vii) "developing a habituation effect", 58.7%; (viii) pharmacists, 93.7%; (ix) "physician's recommendation", 89.3%; (x) "intensity of complaints", 92.6%; and (vi) 61.3% believed that they could choose an appropriate self-medication. Younger and well-educated adults report using self-medication frequently and rate their expertise as high. Healthcare professionals are the preferred source of information.

TITIRITIANDO: Creating an engaging theatrical education program to teach children that cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) are not pets.

Cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) are a critically endangered primate found only in Colombia. Proyecto Tití has been leading conservation efforts in Colombia and has developed successful conservation education programs that engage communities in activities that promote the long-term survival of cotton-top tamarins. TITIRITIANDO is an educational theatrical program that introduces children to cotton-top tamarins and the challenges they face in the illegal pet trade. We presented this program to 4018 elementary school children to determine if using puppets and interactive messaging created an emotional connection between children and cotton-top tamarins that inspired them to engage in actions that aid cotton-top tamarin conservation. Pre- and post-test evaluations were conducted on 1917 students. Pre-surveys found 34% of the children were unable to identify at least one action to help cotton-top tamarins. Following the program students could on average identify at least 3 actions that positively impacted cotton-top tamarins with "not having a cotton-top tamarin as a pet" (75%) as the most frequently sited response. Misconceptions regarding the health and wellbeing of pet cotton-top tamarins was evident with 20% of the students believing that animals were well cared for and had a better life living with people than in the forest. Following the program, students were able to understand and empathize with pet cotton-top tamarins and on average could identify at least 3 negative impacts on individual welfare/well-being with the most common answers as they (1) are sad/depressed (91%), (2) die (87%), (3) are fed an inappropriate diet (80%), (4) have lost their family (74%) and (5) have lost their freedom (39%). This study demonstrates the effectiveness of educational theater in helping children to understand the impact the illegal pet trade has on cotton-top tamarins and how they can engage in activities to protect them.

ANALYSIS OF THE OPINIONS OF WOMEN AND MEN OF DIFFERENT AGES ABOUT PSORIASIS

Purpose: The study aimed to assess the knowledge of women and men of different ages about psoriasis, its symptoms and factors that trigger psoriasis symptoms. Methodology. The study involved 100 respondents whose knowledge of psoriasis, its symptoms and factors that trigger psoriasis symptoms was assessed. The respondents included 28 men (28%) and 72 women (72%) aged between 17 and 65 years. The tool used in the study was a survey, which allowed data to be collected from respondents about their knowledge of psoriasis. The research tool used to conduct the study was an anonymous questionnaire. The study involved answering the survey questions independently, without the involvement of the researcher. There were 10 different types of questions in the survey. These included both personal details and questions about the respondents' subjective experiences. Scientific novelty. When asked if they had ever heard of the condition, 91 respondents said they had. For both women and men in all age groups, the percentage of respondents who had heard of psoriasis was around 90%. Respondents under 30 knew the correct answer to the question about the age at which symptoms first appear (70-80%). The question about the contagiousness of the disease also gave satisfactory results: the majority of respondents (up to 89.5%) answered that psoriasis is not contagious. The question "What disease is psoriasis?", which asked about the aetiology of the disease (chronic, autoimmune and genetic), again showed that, with the exception of respondents aged 31 to 40 who gave only one correct answer, the rest of the respondents (26.1-57.9%) chose the correct answer. Unfortunately, knowledge of the symptoms of psoriasis is very low, with only 27.5% of all respondents marking the symptoms of psoriasis. The majority (45.1%) chose the description of atopic dermatitis. The question about the symptoms of psoriasis of the nail also showed a very low level of awareness among respondents, with only 20.2% giving the correct answer. When it comes to the factors that trigger the symptoms of the condition in question, the most common answers were stress (30%), infection (28.9%) and skin damage (18.9%), which is correct. Men and women of all ages most often agreed that psoriasis can be a contraindication to cosmetic procedures, but depending on the type of procedure; this gives satisfactory results and proves that people with psoriasis can, according to the respondents, use cosmetic services despite skin changes. The question about periods of remission also showed that respondents had a satisfactory knowledge of this subject, as the correct answer – that there are periods of remission in this disease - was given by the largest number of respondents in each study group (between 50 and 100%).

Students as partners for effective change

My journey as a student partner began in the summer of 2020, amidst overwhelming COVID-19 hysteria and an opportunity to explore a new kind of online learning. I was doing research with a professor of mine and invited to a workshop about Pedagogical Partners with Alison Cook-Sather. When I learned how impactful my work could be as a student partner, I was hooked. For many years, I had felt as though students were not listened to, heard, or respected. I wanted students to be able to play an active role in their own learning. My freshman year, I became an undergraduate teaching assistant (UTA). The experience truly changed my college experience - I mended my troubled relationship with school and learning and came to love it. Now, in my final year of college, I’ve been a UTA every semester since my freshman year. I’ve done research on the number of UTAs across the country and on campus at Syracuse University (SU). At SU, UTAs were few and far between, just about 10% of classes had one. The most common answer as to why UTAs weren’t used was that there was no money to pay them, so I created my own class that gave students 3 credits to be a UTA and partnered up with two close faculty mentors of mine to teach it. We reflected, dished out advice, and made important bonds with faculty and each other. After one very successful semester, we combined with the Partnership for Inclusive Education (PIE) Program through the Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence to merge the UTA program with a student consultant program. This semester, I am enjoying the best of both worlds as a UTA as well as a lead student consultant. Over the course of my college career, I have learned what a true partnership means, experienced the two-way learning it provides, and worked to make courses more inclusive, understanding, and student-centered. I’ve fought hard to put students in decision-making roles and mentored countless students into fantastic student partners that have changed campus for the better.

Strategic clarity or calamity? Competing logics of deterrence in the Taiwan Strait

Abstract What is the best way to restore or uphold deterrence when an existing deterrent is perceived to have decayed? One common answer is that deterrers should simply add more of the ingredients that generally make for strong deterrents: more certainty that threats will be carried out, more capabilities to inflict severe punishments upon an adversary, and greater capacity to carry out threats with celerity (speed). This answer draws upon an intuitive quantitative logic that more is always better when it comes to dissuading an adversary from taking unwanted actions. In this article, however, we explain how following this quantitative logic can have the unintended consequence of worsening security relations and provoking war, especially under conditions of shifting power. Using proposals for the United States to provide ‘strategic clarity’ regarding its intentions to defend Taiwan against Chinese aggression as a case-study, we show how efforts to maximize the certainty, severity and celerity of threats can backfire in practice. In general terms, our conclusion is that scholars and policy practitioners must assess the viability of deterrents from a qualitative perspective. With specific reference to Taiwan, we find that strategic clarity would be unlikely to strengthen deterrence in the Taiwan Strait.

A case of confusion: context matters when using reference images on exams

Instructors utilize reference figures from textbooks, journals, and other sources on quizzes and exams to illustrate concepts that would otherwise be diffcult to convey using written text. Examples within biomedical teaching include anatomical images and graphs that students are expected to analyze or interpret. However, the use of a figure may cause confusion and lead students to select an incorrect answer. As such, instructors must evaluate the use of figures to ensure that they enhance students’ ability to correctly answer the question rather than hinder it. This report shows an example where the inclusion of a reference figure led to the majority of students incorrectly answering a question.Over 6 semesters in a master’s level graduate neuroscience course between 2019 and 2021, the same question was used with and without a reference figure in a variety of contexts to determine the factors that contributed to students overwhelmingly selecting an incorrect answer. In the question, students were asked to identify neuroarchitectural adaptations in the somatosensory cortex following amputation. To determine the correct answer, students needed to integrate knowledge of the discriminative touch sensory pathways with knowledge of cortical plasticity.In semesters where the figure was presented without specific teaching interventions, 57% of students selected an incorrect answer that utilized the proximity of cortical sites but was not supported by the signaling pathways. In these semesters, only 39% of students correctly answered. In semesters where the figure was not used, 94% of students correctly answered the question while only 6% of students selected the most common incorrect answer when the figure was present.Teaching interventions were introduced during two semesters in an attempt to “teach the question.” Students were asked to read primary literature on the topic, additional examples and cases were introduced, and in one semester, a similar practice question using was given to the students. Students were then presented with the question containing the image. 56% of students selected the most common incorrect answer while only 42% of students correctly answered the question.While no formal survey of the students was conducted, anecdotal evidence from student offce hours, directed inquiries, and casual conversations indicate that students generally felt that use of the figure, when present, was critical to answering the question and many reported that using the figure led them to prioritize their knowledge of cortical plastic adaptations over that of the signaling pathways.These results demonstrate the importance of carefully utilizing reference images on questions for quizzes and exams. The visual cues of the image can be powerful stimuli for students when analyzing the information and can sometimes lead to incorrect answers on the assessment. This work was supported by internal funding from the Georgetown University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Georgetown University Medical Center’s Center for Innovation and Leadership in Education (CENTILE). This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Can an in-person hands-on applicator-based teaching session improve trainee knowledge and comfort with complex gynecologic brachytherapy?

INTRODUCTIONWith the emergence of imaged-based planning and hybrid applicators the complexity of gynecologic brachytherapy has dramatically increased. Despite the known advantages of brachytherapy, notable national declines in utilization of brachytherapy have been documented. Clearly improved education in the sphere of gynecologic brachytherapy is needed. We hypothesize that a hands-on applicator-based training session would improve trainee comfort with gynecologic brachytherapy. METHODS AND MATERIALSAn in-person, applicator-based, hands-on training session was held with trainees from both radiation and gynecologic oncology programs. Trainees practiced assembling and handling applicators while receiving instruction on clinical scenarios in which various applicators are used in gynecologic cancer brachytherapy. Pre- and post-session, participants were administered an objective test of 10 pictorial-based case vignettes to quantify ability to select the correct applicator based on the interpretation of T2-weighted MR images. Participants additionally received a subjective survey to quantify comfort and experience with gynecologic brachytherapy using Likert-type question formatting. RESULTSA total of 14 trainees participated. Most common case volume experience was 0–10 intracavitary (57%), 0–10 hybrid (71%), and 0–10 interstitial (71%). Pre-session, the most common answer to comfort level was “not comfortable still learning” for all brachytherapy types, and most common answer to largest gap in knowledge was all facets of brachytherapy. Average case-based test score was 3.5/10 pre-session versus 5.3/10 post-session (p = 0.028). Post-session, all respondents reported improved comfort level with brachytherapy. Post-session, most common answer to largest gap in knowledge was applicator/patient selection, and applicator/patient selection was also the largest area of identified improvement. 100% of participants felt repeating the session in the future would be helpful. CONCLUSIONSHands-on training with applicators improves both subjective and objective comfort with gynecologic brachytherapy. With 100% of participants requesting to implement this session into resident training, we suggest national opportunities might exist to expand educational processes and improve utilization of complex gynecologic brachytherapy in practice.

Pre-Existing Knowledge and Self-Reported Barriers to uptake Eye Care among Type-1 Diabetic Patients attending a City Diabetic Hospital at Southern Bangladesh

Purpose: To find out the knowledge about diabetic complication of eye & the barriers to uptake of diabetic eye care among Type-1 diabetic patients. Method: This is a hospital based observational case series of 100 cases of Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM1). Demographic data, knowledge about diabetic complication of eye, self reported barriers to uptake diabetes eye health service were collected by face-to-face interview. Interview was done on a formulated questionnaire including pre-existing knowledge about diabetes related ocular problems and factors act as a barrier to receive eye care. All DM1 patients attending in a city diabetic hospital during one year (from October 2017 to September 2018) period were included. Written consent was taken. Patients refuse to give consent & aged more than 30 years were excluded. Results: The mean age of participants was (17.09 ± 3.92) years with range 6 to 23 years and 57% of them were female. About 59 % subjects were students. Around 50% of the respondent had knowledge about the adverse effect of diabetes on eyes, among them only 6% had knowledge about retina problems and 3% knew that blindness may happen. Only 32% of study population gave answer about the reason behind not seeking diabetic eye care and the most common (12%) answer was “not feeling necessity of eye care”. Conclusion: DM1 patients are more prone to systemic and ocular morbidity. The main reasons for not getting eye care services was lacks of awareness. Increase awareness building program can bring them to the eye health service which will very important to reduce diabetic ocular morbidity of young people who have long life in front of them.

An accuracy characterisation of approximate coherence

Accuracy-first epistemologists argue that rational agents have probabilistically coherent credences. But why should we care, given that we can’t help being incoherent? A common answer: probabilistic coherence is an ideal to be approximated as best one can. De Bona (in: Philos Sci 84(2), 189–213, 2017) and Staffel (in: Unsettled thoughts: a theory of degrees of rationality, Oxford University Press, 2019) show how accuracy-firsters can spell out this answer by adopting an appropriate notion of approximate coherence. In this essay, I argue that De Bona and Staffel’s proposal is not entirely satisfactory, because it does not show whether, or why, it’s generally better to be more rather than less approximately coherent from an accuracy-first perspective. To address this point, I give a characterisation of their notion of approximate coherence in terms of accuracy. This shows that accuracy-firsters should maintain that more approximately coherent credences are better than less approximately coherent ones if and only if they accept that it’s better to miss out on less rather than more guaranteed accuracy.

Is it resectable? A survey regarding tumor classification and vascular involvement

IntroductionThe anatomic location of the pancreas can result in involvement of major vasculature, which may act as a contraindication to resection. Several classification systems have been developed. We sought to discover the variations in the HPB community determining PDAC resectability. MethodsThe multiple-choice survey was distributed to all full members of the IHPBA. Questions were asked regarding demographics and clinical scenarios regarding tumor resectability. Results164 responses were submitted. Most of the respondents were male and had been in practice for over 10 years. The median age range was 40–50 years old. Most practiced in either Asia (n = 57,35.9%), North America (n = 52,32.7%), or Europe (n = 32,20.1%).Classification systems used to determine resectability were: NCCN (n = 42,26.3%), JPS (n = 35,21.9%), International consensus (n = 33,20.6%), AHPBA/SSO (n = 23,14.4%), Alliance (n = 3,1.9%), and other/no-classification (n = 23,14.5%).There was significant variation in the frequency of the most common answer within the scenarios (84.7%–33.5%). Participant concordance with their stated classification system found a median rate of 62.5%. Participant decision of tumor resectability was not dependent on their adopted classification system. ConclusionWhen classifying PDAC resectability, there is significant variation between surgeons as to how they would classify a specific tumour, independent of the classification system they use. In addition, surgeons do not show high concordance with the definitions within that classification system.

Granting Immigrants the Right to Vote in National Elections: Empirical Evidence from Swedish Administrative Data

AbstractFaced with rising levels of cross-border migration, many countries have extended local voting rights to non-citizen residents. However, empirical evidence indicates that voter turnout among non-naturalized immigrants is lower when compared to citizens. This raises the question of how to explain this difference. A common answer is that the low turnout rates of non-citizen residents are primarily due to the socio-economic composition of this group and the challenges involved in adapting to a new political system. An alternative but less discussed possibility is that the low turnout concerns the nature of the elections. Hence, we examine whether the turnout of non-citizens is hampered because they are only allowed to partake in local elections. Based on a regression discontinuity design (RDD) using Swedish administrative data, we find that turnout could increase by 10–20 percentage points if the voting rights of non-citizens were extended to the national level.

What Is It Like To Be a Partisan? Measures of Partisanship and Its Value for Democracy

What is it like to be a partisan? How do individuals experience their relationship to political parties? The most common answer today, both in popular discourse and much political science, isidentity, but many individuals do not identify with parties. Rather, they relate to parties in terms of psychologicalclosenessor affinity—they do not say “we” about the party, as do identifiers, but rather “they.” In this article, I argue that both the empirical and normative study of partisanship would be improved by recognizing that these are two fundamentally different ways for individuals to be attached to parties and that these distinct experiences coexist within most democracies today. Acknowledging this basic plurality of partisanships would remedy the current tendency among empirical studies to homogenize partisanship as either identity or closeness and so would avoid falsifying the experience of many citizens who fall into the opposite category. In polarized contexts, moreover, it could help break up dualistic and antagonistic thinking about how to perform partisanship and diversify public understandings of how to be a partisan. Recognizing the plurality of partisanships would also improve the explosion of normative theorizing about partisanship found in the ground-breaking work of scholars like Nancy Rosenblum, Russell Muirhead, and Jonathan White and Lea Ypi. I show how identity and closeness partisanship—and the interaction between them—have transformative consequences for each of these scholars’ theories of partisanship, either furthering or threatening them. The article aims to improve the conceptualization of partisanship and to model a salutary engagement between normative and empirical inquiry within political science.

Revisiting the question “Why is the sky blue?”

Abstract. The common answer to the question “Why is the sky blue?” is usually Rayleigh scattering. In 1953 Edward Hulburt demonstrated that Rayleigh scattering accounts for 1/3 and ozone absorption for 2/3 of the blue colour of the zenith sky at sunset. In this study, an approach to quantify the contribution of ozone to the blue colour of the sky for different viewing geometries is implemented using the radiative transfer model SCIATRAN and the CIE (International Commission on Illumination) XYZ 1931 colour system. The influence of ozone on the blue colour of the sky is calculated for solar zenith angles of 10–90∘ and a wide range of viewing geometries. For small solar zenith angles, the influence of ozone on the blue colour of the sky is minor, as expected. However, the effect of ozone increases with increasing solar zenith angle. The calculations for the Sun at the horizon confirm Hulburt's estimation with remarkably good agreement. More stratospheric aerosols reduce the ozone contribution at and near the zenith for the Sun at the horizon. The exact contribution of ozone depends strongly on the assumed total ozone column. The calculations also show that the contribution of ozone increases with increasing viewing zenith angle and total ozone column. Variations in surface albedo as well as full treatment of polarised radiative transfer were found to have only minor effects on the contribution of ozone to the blue colour of the sky. Furthermore, with an observer at 10 km altitude an increase in the ozone influence can be seen.

Chat GPT for the management of obstructive sleep apnea: do we have a polar star?

This study explores the potential of the Chat-Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (Chat-GPT), a Large Language Model (LLM), in assisting healthcare professionals in the diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). It aims to assess the agreement between Chat-GPT's responses and those of expert otolaryngologists, shedding light on the role of AI-generated content in medical decision-making. A prospective, cross-sectional study was conducted, involving 350 otolaryngologists from 25 countries who responded to a specialized OSA survey. Chat-GPT was tasked with providing answers to the same survey questions. Responses were assessed by both super-experts and statistically analyzed for agreement. The study revealed that Chat-GPT and expert responses shared a common answer in over 75% of cases for individual questions. However, the overall consensus was achieved in only four questions. Super-expert assessments showed a moderate agreement level, with Chat-GPT scoring slightly lower than experts. Statistically, Chat-GPT's responses differed significantly from experts' opinions (p = 0.0009). Sub-analysis revealed areas of improvement for Chat-GPT, particularly in questions where super-experts rated its responses lower than expert consensus. Chat-GPT demonstrates potential as a valuable resource for OSA diagnosis, especially where access to specialists is limited. The study emphasizes the importance of AI-human collaboration, with Chat-GPT serving as a complementary tool rather than a replacement for medical professionals. This research contributes to the discourse in otolaryngology and encourages further exploration of AI-driven healthcare applications. While Chat-GPT exhibits a commendable level of consensus with expert responses, ongoing refinements in AI-based healthcare tools hold significant promise for the future of medicine, addressing the underdiagnosis and undertreatment of OSA and improving patient outcomes.

Investing in general human capital as a relational strategy: Evidence on flexible arrangements with contract workers

AbstractResearch SummaryThis article examines a firm's investment in the general skills of contract workers in flexible work arrangements. It theorizes that this investment may prolong a productive firm‐worker collaboration even when workers’ mobility barriers are low. It also proposes that achieving such benefits requires that the firm frames the relational benefits of the investments both to managers and workers. Such a “relational framing” mitigates worker concerns about subsequent productivity demands and manager concerns about worker mobility. Experimental and non‐experimental studies conducted in a multinational cosmetics direct sales company support the theory. Investments in the general skills of workers—even those in flexible work arrangements—can benefit both firms and workers by deepening the firm‐worker relationship while increasing value creation.Managerial SummaryShould companies train workers in general skills if the workers can easily leave and transfer productivity gains to competing firms? A common answer to this question is “no,” especially when targeting workers hired under flexible arrangements, such as gig workers and direct sales representatives. This article offers a different perspective. It predicts that these investments signal a company's commitment to nurture workers’ development. In turn, workers reciprocate by prolonging a more productive collaboration. Training thus benefits workers and companies. Using relational terms to frame training programs enables the promotion by managers of training opportunities, and uptake by workers. This framing overcomes managerial concerns about worker exit and worker concerns about subsequent productivity demands. Studies conducted in a multinational cosmetics direct sales company support these arguments.