Common Algal Species Research Articles

Polystyrene microplastics enhanced the photo-degradation and -ammonification of algae-derived dissolved organic matters

Algae-derived organic matter (ADOM) is a key source of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in natural waters. When exposed to solar irradiation, ADOM undergoes gradual degradation and transformation. The escalating presence of microplastics (MPs) can act as a novel type of environmental photosensitizer, however its impacts on ADOM photodegradation remains largely unexplored. Thus, in this study, ADOM were extracted from four common algal species (Microcystis aeruginosa, Synechococcus sp., Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus) and exposed to UV irradiation with or without polystyrene (PS) MPs, namely ADOM+PS groups and ADOM groups, respectively. The results indicated that a more rapid degradation of amino acid-like substances (∼38 % vs. ∼22 %) and more ammonia products (1.86 vs. 1.21 mg L−1) were observed in the ADOM+PS groups compared to the ADOM groups after a five-day exposure. This enhanced photodegradation might be attributed to the production of environmentally persistent free radicals and reactive species during the photoaging of PS. Furthermore, PS-derived high electron transfer belt activity of ADOM led to the production of highly aromatic and humified products. These humic-like products could potentially accelerate the degradation of amino acid-like compounds by exciting the generation of excited triplet CDOM. This study underscores the role of MPs as environmental photosensitizers in promoting ADOM degradation and ammonia generation, providing insights on the transformation of ADOM mediated by emerging pollutants and its impact on aquatic carbon and nitrogen cycles.

English

Arabian Gulf is characterized by being nutrient-rich, which contributes to the biodiversity of marine macro- and microalgae. Marine algae are a potentially prolific source of many valuable products that may represent useful leads in developing the quality of human life. The studies on the bioactivity of marine algae in the Arabian Gulf region are very recent; thus, there are not many studies on this field. This review paper is focus on the importance of algae in various fields, and the benefit of such organisms to solve many environmental and health problems to develop the economy, and healthcare of surrounding Gulf countries by taking advantage of many common algal species present in the Arabian Gulf waters. Studies focuses on potentially using local algal species to control common environmental problems in the region such as harmful algal blooms, oil spills, and in wastewater treatment. Furthermore, they were a potential source of food and feed, and can be used in medical field for the treatment of many common diseases. This review describe researches involving the most common algal species found in Arabian Gulf contributing for the bioactive compound’s isolation, for its productivity in large scale, and for its potential biotechnological applications. Key words: Biotechnology, Marine algae, seaweeds, algae processing, pharmacologically active compounds, algae as food, aquaculture feed, algae oil content.

Genetic Modification of the HSP90 Gene Using CRISPR-Cas9 to Enhance Thermotolerance in T. Suecica

Phytoplankton are marine microorganisms that play a key role in the production of oxygen and serve as the foundation of the marine food chain. Over the past century, the population of phytoplankton has declined significantly with the onset of climate change. Although phytoplankton have the capacity to adapt to rising ocean temperatures, rapid environmental changes, including increased top-down control and thermal stratification, reduce populations before adaptations are incorporated into the genome. To enhance survival rates, thermotolerance in common algal strains can be enhanced through increased expression of the conserved Heat Shock Protein 90 (HSP90). Trials will be conducted on the common algal species, Tetraselmis suecica (T. suecica), for its considerable size, photosynthetic rate, and nutrient-rich properties. Thermotolerance will be augmented by splicing the HSP90 gene into the T. suecica metallothionein (Mt) promoter using CRISPR-Cas9. A period of incubation in a copper sulphate solution ensures Mt promoter stimulation, thereby increasing HSP90 expression. The efficacy of the proposed methods will be measured by comparing HSP90 protein production between transgenic and wild-type T. suecica cultures. The genomic incorporation of the modified HSP90 gene enables future populations to exhibit thermotolerance in the presence of heavy metals in the ocean beyond its basal level of expression. By accelerating the adaptation of thermotolerance, the overall fitness of T. suecica can be increased to re-establish its population under warmer oceanic conditions. By applying similar methods to other phytoplankton, the repopulation of various species can increase biodiversity and global net primary productivity.

High metabolic variation for seaweeds in response to environmental changes: a case study of the brown algae Lobophora in coral reefs

In the marine environment, macroalgae face changing environmental conditions and some species are known for their high capacity to adapt to the new factors of their ecological niche. Some macroalgal metabolites play diverse ecological functions and belong to the adaptive traits of such species. Because algal metabolites are involved in many processes that shape marine biodiversity, understanding their sources of variation and regulation is therefore of utmost relevance. This work aims at exploring the possible sources of metabolic variations with time and space of four common algal species from the genus Lobophora (Dictyotales, Phaeophyceae) in the New Caledonian lagoon using a UHPLC-HRMS metabolomic fingerprinting approach. While inter-specific differences dominated, a high variability of the metabolome was noticed for each species when changing their natural habitats and types of substrates. Fatty acids derivatives and polyolefins were identified as chemomarkers of these changing conditions. The four seaweeds metabolome also displayed monthly variations over the 13-months survey and a significant correlation was made with sea surface temperature and salinity. This study highlights a relative plasticity for the metabolome of Lobophora species.

Comparison of Partitioning and Efficacy Between Copper Algaecide Formulations: Refining the Critical Burden Concept

Filamentous mat-forming algae are increasingly impairing freshwater resources. To restore water utility, reactive management programs often involve application of copper-based algaecides. Copper algaecide formulations can differ significantly, and this research outlined an advanced approach to evaluate formulation efficiency for controlling filamentous algae. Two common algal species (Lyngbya wollei, Pithophora varia) were used to assess copper internalization and adsorption as well as relation to control among copper formulations. Captain® XTR achieved control (7-day EC85) of L. wollei with internal copper concentrations of 0.78 and 0.76 mg Cu/g based on chlorophyll a content or filament viability, respectively. Cutrine® Ultra achieved control of L. wollei based on filament viability only at 0.85 mg Cu/g. Internalized copper concentrations required for control following Captain XTR exposures were similar for P. varia, 0.81 and 0.95 mg Cu/g, whereas Cutrine Ultra and copper sulfate did not elicit control nor attain the critical internal copper threshold. The relationship between internalized copper and responses, among all formulations, was significant (P < 0.0001) with R2 values of 0.920 and 0.935 for L. wollei and 0.807 and 0.826 for P. varia based on filament viability and chlorophyll a content, respectively. Formulation efficiency, internalized copper versus total amended, was greatest with Captain XTR (average 0.17), followed by Cutrine Ultra (0.13), and copper sulfate (0.09). By measuring the efficiency of a specific algaecide and the corresponding amount required to achieve control of targeted algal biomass, management objectives can be achieved while decreasing environmental loads of copper, number of treatments, and operational costs.

The reduction of Chlorella vulgaris concentrations through UV-C radiation treatments: A nature-based solution (NBS)

Algal blooms have become a pressing issue in inland freshwater systems on local and global scales. A plausible approach to reducing algae without the use of chemical/biological agents is through the use of UV-C radiation from lamps potentially powered by in situ solar panels to eliminate algae. Yet, the quantitative scientific base has not been established. Our objective is to conduct a controlled experiment to quantify the effectiveness of UV-C radiation on the reduction of Chlorella vulgaris, a common algal species in the Great Lakes region. A full factorial design of three intensities of UV-C radiation (0, 15, and 30W) and three sources of C. vulgaris was constructed to test the corresponding hypotheses. Empirical models were constructed to predict the reductions. UV-C radiation effectively reduced the algal concentration with clear differences by radiation level and source of algal water. Algal concentration decreased exponentially over time, with distinct decreasing trends among the radiation intensities and the samples. With 15W UV-C radiation, algal concentration of three samples were reduced to 75.3%, 51.5%, and 70.0% of the initial level within an hour, respectively. We also found a clear density-dependent reduction rate by UV radiation. Using this information, more efficient treatment systems could be constructed and implemented for cleaning algae-contaminated water.

Size matters: experimental partitioning of the strength of fish herbivory on a fringing coral reef in Moorea, French Polynesia

AbstractWhile the importance of top‐down control by grazers in maintaining tropical reef community structure is well known, the effect of ‘fishing down the food web’, which simultaneously changes the abundance and size of herbivorous fishes, has received less attention. As many fishing practices target the biggest fish and regulations often set minimum size limits, understanding size‐dependency of this controlling force is important. We evaluated the hypothesis that reduction in the abundance and size of fish, regardless of species identity, reduces the role of herbivory in controlling algal abundance on reefs and assessed variation in efficacy of this top‐down control on different types of common macroalgae. We quantified herbivory rates within cages of differing opening sizes on assemblages of four common algal species (Padina boryana, Dictyota bartayresiana, Halimeda opuntia and Galaxaura fasciculata) on two fringing reefs in Moorea, French Polynesia. Small acanthurids (&lt;15 cm length) were the dominant herbivorous fish while other herbivorous fish were rare. For the two most palatable algae, the majority of herbivory occurred in open plots, with herbivory reduced by &gt;50% in the largest opening cages (6 × 6 cm) where the maximum size fish entering was 12 cm in length (mean = 7.6, SE = 0.4). Fish entering medium (4.5 × 4.5 cm openings, maximum fish length = 8 cm, mean = 6.3, SE = 0.4) and small (3 × 3 cm openings, no fish observed entering) cages had herbivory rates approximately equal to the control treatment (1 × 1 cm openings). Consumption varied among algal species, with minimal consumption of physically and chemically defended algae and no pattern across treatments. Our results demonstrate a need for management plans to not only maintain the overall abundance of herbivorous fish but to protect the largest sizes for effective top‐down control of algal communities.

Phenological study of Sargassum thunbergii (Fucales, Phaeophyta) in Lidao Bay, Rongcheng, China

We conducted a phenological evaluation of Sargassum thunbergii, a common algal species, along the coast of Lidao Bay, Rongcheng, China. The local S. thunbergii population entered a maturation period from early June to mid-August, when seawater temperature was 14.4 to 25.1°C. Our results suggest an increase in temperature and day length during this period initiated thalli maturation. Inhabitants of the low tidal zone had higher thalli length and biomass compared with those from the mid-and high tidal zones. We observed a switch in the length frequency distribution and contribution of length classes to biomass between the small (<20 cm) and long (20–79.9 cm) length classes at the time of thallus maturity. This suggests there is a trade-offbetween sexual reproduction and vegetative regeneration.

Effect of silicate and inorganic carbon availability on the growth and competition of a diatom and two red tide dinoflagellates

:The influence of silicate and inorganic carbon availability on the growth of three common algal species, namely, the diatom Skeletonema costatum (Coscinodiscophyceae) and the dinoflagellates Prorocentrum minimum and Alexandrium tamarense (Dinophyceae), was studied. Competition experiments using these three species were performed under different conditions to determine the dominance of red tide algal species in certain marine environments. Skeletonema costatum outgrew the two dinoflagellates in the silicate-replete medium as a result of its high growth rate. However, the cell density of S. costatum decreased with reduced silicate and changed inorganic carbon availabilities. Skeletonema costatum stopped growing when the inorganic carbon concentration was doubled at a constant pH of 7.7, which may have resulted from the enhanced growth of the two dinoflagellates. Prorocentrum minimum and A. tamarense became dominant at constant pH 7.7 conditions. As a component of the CO2 concentrating mechanism (CCM), extracellular carbonic anhydrase (eCA) showed significantly lower activities in S. costatum under low-silicate and constant pH 7.7 conditions; whereas, the P. minimum eCA activity remained almost unaffected. Different eCA responses to reduced silicate and varied carbon sources suggested that the species differed in inorganic carbon acquisition. The results suggested that patterns of species dominance of bloom-forming microalgae may be related to silicate and inorganic carbon availabilities.

Effect of pH and Temperature on the Efficiency of Indigenous Algae to Remove Contaminants from Artificial Wastewaters

A series of Lab incubation experiments were conducted to assess the effect of different pHs (5.5., 7.0 and 8.5) and temperature ranges (25, 30 and 35 0 C) on the ability of indigenous algal species for removal of contaminants and other heavy metals, from artificial contaminated water during 2012-13. For this purpose, algal samples were collected from different areas in district Buner. Artificial contaminated waters were prepared and amended to pH 5.5, 7.0 or 8.5 using dilute alkali or acid and then each set was inoculated with mix culture of Microspora, Navicula, Chaetophora, Spirogyra, Apanothece, and Hydrodictyon as these were most abundant and common algal species in Buner. After inoculation, each set was incubated at 25, 30 or 35 o C for 10 days. The results obtained on the efficiency of indigenous algae collected from Buner to remove contaminants and other heavy metals from artificial wastewaters under different pH levels (5.5, 7.0 and 8.5) and temperature ranges (25, 30 and 35 0 C) showed that a mix culture of algae viz., Microspora, Navicula, Chaetophora, Spirogyra, Apanothece, and Hydrodictyon removed variable amount of heavy metals ranged from 37 % in case of Cu up to 96 % in case of Ni from wastewaters. The results revealed that change in pH between 5.5 and 8.5 and in temperature between 25 and 35 0 C had no remarkable influence on the efficiency of algae to remove these elements from contaminated water.

Seaweed richness and herbivory increase rate of community recovery from disturbance.

The importance of herbivores and of plant diversity for community succession and recovery from disturbance is well documented. However, few studies have assessed the relative magnitude of, or potential interactions between, these factors. To determine the combined effect of herbivory and surrounding algal species richness on the recovery of a rocky intertidal community, we conducted a 27-month field experiment assessing algal recruitment and succession in cleared patches that mimic naturally forming gaps in the ambient community. We crossed two herbivore treatments, ambient and reduced abundance, with monocultures and polycultures of the four most common algal species in a mid-high rocky intertidal zone of northern California. We found that both the presence of herbivores and high surrounding algal richness increased recovery rates, and the effect of algal richness was twice the magnitude of that of herbivores. The increased recovery rate of patches containing herbivores was due to the consumption of fast-growing, early colonist species that preempt space from perennial, late-successional species. Mechanisms linking algal richness and recovery are more numerous. In polycultures, herbivore abundance and species composition is altered, desiccation rates are lower, and propagule recruitment, survival, and growth are higher compared to monocultures, all of which could contribute the observed effect of surrounding species richness. Herbivory and species richness should jointly accelerate recovery wherever palatable species inhibit late-successional, herbivore-resistant species and recruitment and survival of new colonists is promoted by local species richness. These appear to be common features of rocky-shore seaweed, and perhaps other, communities.

Ammonia may play an important role in the succession of cyanobacterial blooms and the distribution of common algal species in shallow freshwater lakes

AbstractWith the human intensification of agricultural and industrial activities, large amount of reduced nitrogen enter into the biosphere, which consequently results in the development of global eutrophication and cyanobacterial blooms. However, no research had reported the effect of ammonia toxicity on the algal succession. In this study, we investigated the ammonia toxicity to 19 algal species or strains to test the hypothesis that ammonia may regulate the succession of cyanobacterial blooms and the distribution of common algal species in freshwater lakes. The bloom‐forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 suffered from ammonia toxicity at high pH value and light intensity conditions. Low NH4Cl concentration (0.06 mmol L−1) resulted in the decrease of operational PSII quantum yield by 50% compared with the control exposed to 1000 μmol photons m−2 s−1 for 1 h at pH 9.0 ± 0.2, which can be reached in freshwater lakes. Furthermore, the tolerant abilities to NH3 toxicity of 18 freshwater algal species or strains were as follows: hypertrophication species &gt; eutrophication species &gt; mesotrophication species &gt; oligotrophication species. The different sensitivities of NH3 toxicity in this study could well explain the distributing rule of common algal species in the freshwater lakes of different trophic states. Meanwhile, the cyanobacterial bloom (e.g. M. aeruginosa) always happened at the low concentration of ammonia in summer, and disappeared with the decrease of ammonia. This may be attributed to the toxic effect of ammonia to M. aeruginosa in spring (the average and maximum ammonia concentration were 0.08 and 0.72 mmol L−1 in 33 Chinese lakes), and the low level of NH3‐N in summer and fall in the lakes might be used as preferred nitrogen nutrition by M. aeruginosa, rather than with toxicity. Therefore, ammonia could be a key factor to determine the distribution of common algal species and cyanobacterial bloom in the freshwater systems.

Inhibition of three algae species using chemicals released from barley straw

Algal blooms are a significant problem in the UK, particularly in water sources that supply potable water treatment works. A wide range of methods to control algae have been tested and, whilst many are effective, they all have disadvantages. The use of barley straw to control algal growth in reservoirs is one option that is gaining popularity, but little is known about its mode of action. One suggested mechanism is that, as the straw is broken down, algastatic chemicals such as phenolics are released. Here we have used an algae inhibition test to evaluate the effect of chemicals reported to be released from straw on three common algal species: Chlorella vulgaris, Microcystis aeruginosa and Scenedesmus subspicatus. It was shown that, of the chemicals assessed, many produced an algastatic effect on the growth of the three algal species tested, with 2 phenyl‐phenol being the most effective, whilst p‐cresol and benzaldehyde were shown to be effective at concentrations similar to those that have been reported downstream of rotted straw. Scenedesmus subspicatus proved to be much more resistant to the chemicals tested than the other species.

Assessing species richness of macrofauna associated with macroalgae in Arctic kelp forests (Hornsund, Svalbard)

Kelp beds support diverse and productive benthic coastal ecosystems and are often perceived as cold water analogs of tropical coral reefs, yet the levels of species richness in polar regions have remained largely unexplored. The present study aims to assess the magnitude of macrozoobenthic species richness associated with the macroalgae in an Arctic kelp forest. The study was conducted in Hornsund, a high latitude Arctic fjord off west Spitsbergen (76–77°N). A total of 403 samples (i.e., individual algae) were collected by scuba divers at three sites located along the fjord axis at varying depths (5–10 m). The most common invertebrate species and the sample species richness (mean 11.5 species per sample) were consistent among the most common algal species (Laminaria digitata, Saccharina latissima,Alaria esculenta, Desmarestia aculeta, Odonthalia dentata, Phycodrys rubens). Fauna associated with overstory kelps was concentrated on the holdfasts. A total of 208 species were identified; Bryozoa, Polychaeta and Hydrozoa yielded the highest numbers of species (70, 52 and 37, respectively). The non-parametric Chao2 estimator of true species richness gave an estimate of 259 species (with 95% confidence intervals from 234 to 308). Despite the high sampling effort, the total species richness was not captured. This may stem from the high level of rarity within the fauna associated with kelps; 38% of the species occurred only in one or two samples. The studied fauna was much less diverse than similar assemblages surveyed at lower latitudes. The high numbers of species and the common occurrence of colonial forms (Bryozoa, Hydrozoa) in the current study show that these taxa cannot be omitted in macrobenthic diversity surveys performed within kelp habitats.

Presence Of Nemathecia In Parachaetetes Asvapatii Pia, 1936 (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales?): Reproduction In ‘Solenoporaceans’ Revisited

Parachaetetes asvapatii is a very common algal species in the Palaeogene deposits of the Tethyan realm and has been considered as a member of the heterogeneous family Solenoporaceae. This attribution is exclusively based on features of the vegetative tissue, since no reproductive structures have ever been recovered. However, detailed analysis of Late Cretaceous–Eocene material from Turkey has revealed nemathecia‐like structures in one specimen attributable to P. asvapatii. These nemathecia are small wart‐like structures protruding on the thallus surface that formed by enlargement of the most peripheral cells of the plant. Nemathecia only occur in three families of the order Gigartinales (Rhodophyta): Rhizophyllidaceae, Peyssonneliaceae and Polyideaceae. Since reproductive structures are stable characters, the presence of nemathecia leads us to tentatively refer P. asvapatii and related species (probably Elianella elegans) to the Gigartinales.

Feeding rates of Littorina striata and Osilinus atratus in relation to nutritional quality and chemical defenses of seaweeds

Algae frequently suffer attack by herbivores and in some cases complete destruction has been observed. Despite the role of herbivores in structuring marine algal communities, herbivore food choice and the algal traits that herbivores use to choose foods are poorly documented. There has been much discussion and disagreement regarding the best method of assessing food preference. Experiments designed to detect preferential feeding involve offering a selection of food types to one or more individual consumers. Ideally, the potential foods are presented simultaneously to the consumer within a single experimental arena so that the consumer has the opportunity to express a dietary choice. However, some experimental designs allow individual consumers to feed for a constant time on individually presented alternative foods, which permits comparisons of feeding rates on these different foods. Such an experiment is not a true feeding preference experiment because no food choice is provided, but the results can reflect differences in attractiveness or palatability of various potential foods that may also be expressed when choices are offered. In this work, discrimination in selection of algae was tested in two invertebrate species common on intertidal rocks in Gran Canaria (Littorina striata and Osilinus atratus) by measuring their feeding rates on 20 common algal species in no-choice laboratory experiments. The algae represented the major floral elements of the local intertidal community. L. striata and O. atratus exhibited high feeding rates on Enteromorpha muscoides and Ulva rigida, whereas Alsidium corallinum and Laurencia corrallopsis were refused. The majority of algal species were readily consumed by these two generalist herbivores. No clearly defined trends in the concentrations of ash, nitrogen, carbon, soluble carbohydrates, soluble proteins, and caloric content in the seaweeds were found to account for these differences in feeding rates. In contrast, feeding rates varied according to the presence of secondary metabolites. The low susceptibility to grazing by snails in the least-consumed algae seems to be associated with the presence of secondary metabolites. We suggest that feeding rates of L. striata and O. atratus on algae are primarily due to avoidance of algal chemical defenses, whereas positive aspects of food quality probably play a lesser role in determining consumption.

Soil algae from marlstone-substratum based biotopes in the Nature park Džbán (Central Bohemia, Czech Republic) with special attention to the natural treeless localities

The soil algal species composition of some marlstone-substratum based biotopes of Džban region (Central Bohemia, Czech Republic) was investigated. A total of 54 species representing 42 genera were recovered. Chlorophytes were the most abundant group in all investigated sites. The most common green algal species encountered were Mychonastes homosphaera, Stichococcus bacillaris and Klebsormidium flaccidum. Other frequently occuring species were the cyanophytes Nostoc commune and Phormidium autumnale f. autumnale and diatoms Pinnularia borealis and Nitzschia palea. The investigated sites were compared according to their soil algal floras, The natural treeless localities share similar soil algal synusiae with some typical non-forest features - higher frequency of filamentous cyanophytes and diatomes, occurrence of some desmids. The species list from an investigated secondary meadow is dominated by chlorococcal algae with lower occurrence of other groups. This could be determined by lower pH of the soil from this locality The beech dominated forest locality shares some features typical for temperate forests - lower species richness, common occurrence of green flagellates and unicells, low occurrence of cyanophytes.

The significance of algae as trihalomethane precursors

The objective of this study was to assess the relative importance of algae and algal derived organic precursors in the generation of Trihalomethane compounds (THMs). Laboratory tests have been carried out using cultures of two common algal species dominating natural reservoir populations to assess the importance of species, growth phase and biomass versus Extracellular product (ECP) in THM production. The results of the study showed that THMFP of algae cells and ECP increased with culture age. THM formation from cells was more than double that from ECPs for Asterionella formosa and Anabaena flosaquae . It is predicted that typical blooms in a reservoir of either species could produce a substantial fraction of the THM9s formed during chlorination.

The significance of algae as trihalomethane precursors

The objective of this study was to assess the relative importance of algae and algal derived organic precursors in the generation of Trihalomethane compounds (THMs). Laboratory tests have been carried out using cultures of two common algal species dominating natural reservoir populations to assess the importance of species, growth phase and biomass versus Extracellular product (ECP) in THM production. The results of the study showed that THMFP of algae cells and ECP increased with culture age. THM formation from cells was more than double that from ECPs for Asterionella formosa and Anabaena flosaquae. It is predicted that typical blooms in a reservoir of either species could produce a substantial fraction of the THM's formed during chlorination.

A survey of some trace elements in seaweeds from Patagonia, Argentina

Cadmium and lead concentrations were determined in some common algal species living in the southernmost coasts of Argentina. Two different sampling areas were chosen: Gulf Nuevo, a locality being influenced by a developing industrial city, and Bay Camarones, a traditional harvest area for seaweed exploitation. Selected species of the genera Lessonia, Macrocystis and Gigartina, all of commercial interest, were collected from the harvest area, and analyses showed low levels of the metals in these species. Accumulation of Pb and Cd was also evident in other common brown seaweeds from the industrial site. Analysis of Al was included in this study due to an aluminum works near one of the sampling sites. High values of this metal ranging between 300 and 3000 mg Al/kg (dry basis) were recorded in the industrialized area. Amongst all of the species studied, Colpomenia sinuosa from Gulf Nuevo exhibited the highest values of aluminum. This preliminary survey showed that, except for Al, the levels of Cd and Pb were lower than those reported in same species of seaweeds from the polluted marine waters of the rest of the world.