Endometriosis is characterized by ectopic growth of endometrial tissue causing severe abdominal pain and inflammation during disease progression. Myrrh, a resin collected from trees of genus Commiphora known for its anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties, has not yet been explored for endometriosis treatment. The present study utilized network pharmacology and subsequent in vitro/in vivo experiments to assess myrrh's antiendometriotic potential. In a mouse model, orally administrated myrrh significantly reduced the weight of endometriotic foci at low doses (0.7 or 3.5 mg/kg/day). Myrrh showed higher toxicity in 12Z cells compared with T-HESCs and triggered mitochondrial-associated apoptosis by altering the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. RNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis revealed that myrrh upregulates pathways such as the unfolded protein response (UPR), proteasomal proteolysis, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Differentially expressed gene analysis showed an increase in genes essential for the UPR, including PPP1R15A, DDIT3, ATF6, ERN1 and ATF4, which was validated by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Treatment with tauroursodeoxycholic acid, an ER stress inhibitor, was found to abolish myrrh-induced cytotoxicity. Overall, these findings suggest that myrrh inhibits the growth of endometrial foci by inducing ER stress and subsequent apoptosis. Therefore, myrrh may be a potential therapeutic candidate for endometriosis.

The Commiphora gileadensis (C. gileadensis) is a tree belonging to the genus Commiphora. Aim of the study: This study investigates the effect of C. gileadensis on erectile dysfunction and infertility in male mice. Fifty male BALB/c mice are divided into five groups: control, untreated diabetic, diabetic C. gileadensis sap-treated, methanol extract-treated, and acetone extract-treated. All groups were assessed for body weight, testicular weight, serum follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, testosterone, prolactin, nitric oxide, adropin, endothelin levels, semen analysis, CD4+, CD8+, CD25+, and testicular nitric oxide synthase (NOS) immunoreactivity. C. gileadensis maintains sexual integrity and infertility in mice. Diabetic groups treated with C. gileadensis had significantly higher body weight than the untreated group. Furthermore, the diabetic group treated with C. gileadensis sap had significantly increased testicular weight than the untreated groups. Diabetic groups treated with C. gileadensis had significantly greater testosterone levels than the untreated groups. Additionally, these groups exhibit considerably higher nitric oxide and adropin levels than the untreated diabetic group. Endothelin levels were considerably lower in diabetic groups treated with C. gileadensis than in the untreated group. Semen analysis shows that the diabetic group treated with C. gileadensis sap had considerably more sperm count than the untreated group (P < 0.05). CD4+, CD8+, CD4+, CD25+, and CD8+ CD25+ were reduced significantly in diabetic mice treated with C. gileadnesis. In addition, the NOS immunoreactivity is greater in diabetic C. gileadensis treated groups than in the untreated group. C. gileadensis induces mice erectile function and fertility. The study does not use laser Doppler flowmetry for the measurement of erectile dysfunction. C. gileadensis ameliorates infertility and erectile dysfunction in diabetic mice.

Myrrh has a long tradition in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. However, many of its (active) constituents are still unknown. In the present study, secondary metabolites were isolated from an ethanolic extract by various separation methods (liquid–liquid partition, silica and RP18 flash chromatography, CPC, and preparative HPLC), their structures were elucidated with NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry, and the selected compounds were tested for their effect on LPS-induced NO production by RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Among the isolated substances are 17 sesquiterpenes (1–17) including the first 4,8-cycloeudesmane (1), a triterpene (38), two phytosterols (39, 40) and one lignan (43), which were previously unknown as natural products. Numerous compounds are described for the first time for the genus Commiphora. Eight of the eleven compounds tested (1, 29, 31, 32, 34–37) showed a statistically significant, concentration-dependent weak to moderate anti-inflammatory effect on NO production in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages in vitro. For the reference substance, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, an IC50 of 46.0 µM was determined. These sesquiterpenes might therefore be part of the multi-target molecular principles behind the efficacy of myrrh in inflammatory diseases.

A seed recovered during archaeological excavations of a cave in the Judean desert was germinated, with radiocarbon analysis indicating an age of 993 CE– 1202 calCE. DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis identified the seedling as belonging to the angiosperm genus Commiphora Jacq., sister to three Southern African Commiphora species, but unique from all other species sampled to date. The germinated seedling was not closely related to Commiphora species commonly harvested for their fragrant oleoresins including Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C.Chr., candidate for the locally extinct “Judean Balsam” or “Balm of Gilead” of antiquity. GC-MS analysis revealed minimal fragrant compounds but abundance of those associated with multi-target bioactivity and a previously undescribed glycolipid compound series. Several hypotheses are offered to explain the origins, implications and ethnobotanical significance of this unknown Commiphora sp., to the best of our knowledge the first identified from an archaeological site in this region, including identification with a resin producing tree mentioned in Biblical sources and possible agricultural relationship with the historic Judean Balsam.

ABSTRACTObjective:Commiphora gileadensis is a small tree under the genus Commiphora. Previous studies showed medical applications, such as antibacterial and antihypertensive, for C. gileadensis.Methods:Sixty naïve mice were classified into six groups: control, C. gileadensis sap-treated group, C. gileadensis methanol extract-treated group, C. gileadensis acetone extract-treated group, heparin-treated group, and aspirin-treated group. Blood samples from each mouse in the six groups were collected in EDTA, sodium citrate, and heparin tubes. The body weight of each mouse was measured at the beginning and end of the experiment. Furthermore, complete blood count, kidney and renal function tests, coagulation profiles, prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), international normalized ratio (INR), D-dimer, and fibrinogen concentrations were estimated for each mouse.Results:The sodium, potassium, chloride, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, alanine transaminase, and aspartate transaminase levels did not show statistical differences between all groups. Moreover, PT, aPTT, and INR were prolonged in the C. gileadensis sap, methanol, and acetone extracts-treated mice compared with those in the heparin and aspirin-treated groups (P < 0.01). D-dimer and fibrinogen concentrations did not show significant statistical differences between all groups.Conclusion:The current study concludes that the C. gileadensis sap, methanol, and acetone extracts prolonged PT, aPTT, and bleeding time in naïve mice more than heparin and aspirin. This means that the C. gileadensis extracts may have antithrombotic activity and may be used in the future to resolve intravascular thrombosis in patients having prosthetic valves.

This study includes the supply chain management practices and challenges of the three EOTC worship requirement supplies i,e Myrrh, Frankincense, and grape. Myrrh is a gum resin extracted from some small, thorny tree species of the genus Commiphora. Frankincense also known as olibanum is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia. A grape is a berry or typically green, purple, or black growing in clusters on a grapevine, eaten as a fruit and used in making wine. Therefore, the purpose of this study was investigating the challenges and practices of the Myrrh, Frankincense, and Grape supply chain system. The study used methods of assessing the most relevant literatures written from the Web of Science, Scopus, and google scholar including Ethiopian reports to the world unions. The KJV version of the holy bible mentions frankincense more than 100 times, myrrh 18 times, and grapes 7-25 times. These resources are to be used prudently and according to Leviticus' instructions. The findings indicated that three elements of worship are taking place under various, negative circumstances. All three species are widely known around the world and in Ethiopia in particular, but little is being done about them because EOTC only spends 33,075,050,000birr annually. Even key users are not heavily involved in the import-export chain. Values: The chain's stakeholders are paying a high price and losing benefits as a result of this reasons. According to church teaching, it is also necessary to use isolated Frankincense, pure grape, and pure and tested myrrh. Standardization of the supply chain and frameworked stracture should asuured by stakeholder. As far as the government concerned, and the EOTC, which accounts for the largest portion of those three consumes, it recommend to learn from the past in order to ensure future demand and supply balances.

The Socotra Archipelago (Yemen) is an interesting biodiversity hotspot, with a significant proportion of endemic species that have evolved to survive in an arid subtropical environment, inscribed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The terrestrial ecosystems of Socotra face several threats, including climate change, overgrazing and soil degradation. Socotra Island has four endemic species of the genus Commiphora (Burseraceae). Little is known about their local distribution and ecology, yet these trees could be useful indicator species. Our study focuses on the distribution and niche characterisation of the four endemic Commiphora species of Socotra and how climate change may affect them. The aim is to improve insights into their habitats and to provide an essential basis for future local management plans and ecological restoration. We compared the current distribution with the forecasted potential distribution under a CMIP6 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project) climate scenario, allowing us to define target conservation areas and assess potential local extinction risks. To achieve this, we collected distribution data in the field throughout Socotra Island, covering the current distribution ranges of the four species. To assess the potential distribution of these species, we applied three models (GAM, MaxEnt, RandomForest) using bioclimatic, topographic and soil variables. Forecasts under a climate change scenario were made using bioclimatic variables from the CMCC-CESM2 climate model for two different socioeconomic pathways. The distribution of three endemic Socotran Commiphora is mainly correlated to clay content in the soil and winter precipitation, while C. socotrana is affected by seasonal precipitation and temperature. Under different potential future climate scenarios, the distribution of C. ornifolia is predicted to remain stable or increase, while C. parvifolia distribution could increase, yet C. planifrons and C. socotrana are predicted to undergo a strong reduction of suitable areas and an upward shift in the mountains. Our results highlight that it is essential to conserve the unique terrestrial ecosystems in Socotra and to preserve these endemic trees which have a wide range of ecosystem services. Updates on the predicted extinction risk assessment are fundamental to understand conservation priorities and strategize future actions to ensure the persistence of Socotran myrrh trees and other endangered endemic tree taxa on the island.

The oleo–gum resin of Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. has a long history of medicinal use, although many of its constituents are still unknown. In the present investigation, 34 secondary metabolites were isolated from myrrh resin using different chromatographic techniques (silica flash chromatography, CPC, and preparative HPLC) and their structures were elucidated with NMR spectroscopy, HRESIMS, CD spectroscopy, and ECD calculations. Among the isolated substances are seven sesquiterpenes (1–7), one disesquiterpene (8), and two triterpenes (23, 24), which were hitherto unknown, and numerous substances are described here for the first time for C. myrrha or the genus Commiphora. Furthermore, the effects of selected terpenes on cervix cancer cells (HeLa) were studied in an MTT-based in vitro assay. Three triterpenes were observed to be the most toxic with moderate IC50 values of 60.3 (29), 74.5 (33), and 78.9 µM (26). Due to the different activity of the structurally similar triterpenoids, the impact of different structural elements on the cytotoxic effect could be discussed and linked to the presence of a 1,2,3-trihydroxy substructure in the A ring. The influence on TNF-α dependent expression of the intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) was also tested for 4–6, 9–11, 17, 18, 20, and 27 in vitro, but revealed less than 20% ICAM-1 reduction and, therefore, no significant anti-inflammatory activity.

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced renal injury is a common reason for kidney injury in clinical settings; therefore, continuous investigation of novel nephroprotective agents is crucial. Myrrh, the oleoresin exudates generated by the genus Commiphora, display numerous pharmacological actions. This study tried to assess the preventive effects of myrrh essential oil against I/R-induced renal damage. Rats were randomized into five groups. In the sham group, the animals were subjected to bilateral renal artery separation with no occlusion. In the sham + myrrh group; the rats were administered myrrh essential oil and then treated similarly to the sham group. Renal I/R group: the animals were challenged with renal I/R. In the myrrh + renal I/R groups, rats were administered 50 or 100 mg/kg of myrrh essential oil orally for three weeks before being confronted with I/R. Serum levels of renal function tests and renal injury biomarkers, including NGAL, KIM-1, and CysC, were amplified in the renal I/R group. Animals that experienced renal I/R exhibited elevated lipid peroxidation (MDA); declined SOD, CAT, and GPx activity; declined GSH content; augmented TLR4/NFκB gene expression; and subsequent enhancement of inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, and IL-6). Myrrh reduced renal function tests and injury biomarkers and amended renal histological alterations. Pretreatment with myrrh reduced MDA, elevated the antioxidant enzymes' activities and GSH content, and reduced the TLR4 and NFκB gene expression, leading to subsequent inflammation and apoptosis alleviation. The outcomes of the present investigation established the protective effect of myrrh essential oil against renal I/R via pointing out the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects of myrrh.

Oleogum resins of the genus Commiphora have been used in traditional medicines for centuries. More than 200 Commiphora species exhibit highly variable phytochemical compositions. A novel highly selective, sensitive, accurate HPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to quantify five characteristic phytosteroids and furanosesquiterpenoids, namely (E)-guggulsterone, (Z)-guggulsterone, curzerenone, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, and myrrhone. The resulting contents and additionally GC analysis were used to classify and differentiate Commiphora oleogum resins of the species C. myrrha, C. erythraea, C. mukul, C. holtziana, C. confusa, and C. kua, as well as unspecified resins. Interestingly, a Commiphora sample from Ogaden, Ethiopia, comprised 446 ng/mg guggulsterones presumed to be unique to C. mukul from the Indian subcontinent. However, Commiphora from Ogaden differed considerably from C. mukul in respect to guggulsterones isomer’s ratio. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of Commiphora extracts, essential oils, botanical drugs containing Commiphora, and pure compounds against the epidermoid carcinoma A431, malignant melanoma RPMI-7951 and SK-MEL-28 cells was investigated in vitro. Thereby, especially C. mukul extract and C. myrrha essential oil exhibited high cytotoxicity against skin cancer cells with IC50 of 2.9–10.9 µg/mL, but were less toxic to normal keratinocytes. In summary, Commiphora oleogum resins and its phytochemicals warrant further investigation aiming at chemotaxonomical classification as well as application in skin cancer treatment.

Commiphora leptophloeos (Burseraceae) is a plant belonging to the genus Commiphora popularly known as imburana or umburana. It found in the caatinga and cerrado of Brazil. The species belonging to the genus Commiphora are used in folk medicine as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and in the treatment of several diseases. In recent decades, cases of diseases caused by the Aedes aegypti mosquito have increased considerably, making it necessary to seek alternative measures to combat the vector. The present study aimed to analyze, through bibliographic review, Commiphora leptophloeos regarding aspects of family, genus and species; and describe the relationship of this species with Aedes aegypti, highlighting natural products in the control. The findings indicate repellent activity of species of the genus Commiphora on insects, in addition to the presence of some mono and sesquiterpenes compounds, widely distributed in the genus, among them α-pinene, camphene and β-pinene. Studies also confirm the ethnobotanical uses of C. leptophloeos, as well as its potential in the treatment of diseases. The analyzed literature indicates the antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extract of the bark and stem of C. leptophloeos against Staphylococcus epidermidis. Other data reveal that the essential oil of this species has larvicidal and deterrent activity against A. aegypti. The revised literature suggests the importance of natural products, their advantages as biopesticides, as well as the effectiveness of C. leptophloeos in combating the A. aegypti mosquito, stressing the need for further studies and tests to isolate the compounds present in this species.

By using various chromatographic steps (silica flash, CPC, preparative HPLC), 16 sesquiterpenes could be isolated from an ethanolic extract of myrrh resin. Their chemical structures were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and HRESIMS. Among them, six previously unknown compounds (1–6) and another four metabolites previously not described for the genus Commiphora (7, 10, 12, 13) could be identified. Sesquiterpenes 1 and 2 are novel 9,10-seco-eudesmanes and exhibited an unprecedented sesquiterpene carbon skeleton, which is described here for the first time. New compound 3 is an 9,10 seco-guaian and the only peroxide isolated from myrrh so far. Compounds 1, 2, 4, 7–9, 11, 13–16 were tested in an ICAM-1 in vitro assay. Compound 7, as well as the reference compound furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, acted as moderate inhibitors of this adhesion molecule ICAM-1 (IC50: 44.8 and 46.3 μM, respectively). These results give new hints on the activity of sesquiterpenes with regard to ICAM-1 inhibition and possible modes of action of myrrh in anti-inflammatory processes.

Objective: This in vitro study aims to investigate the antimicrobial effect of extracts from Commiphora gileadensis (C. gileadensis) on one and three weeks old oral anaerobic multispecies biofilms and to compare them to 2% chlorhexidine (CHX). Material and Methods: Hydroxyapatite discs were coated with type I collagen and immersed in Brain Heart Infusion broth infused with an oral subgingival plaque obtained from two donors. The discs were then incubated under anaerobic conditions for one or three weeks. After biofilm growth, the discs were exposed to one or three minutes for the following solutions: 1 - C. gileadensis 1mg/ml water, 2 - C. gileadensis 0.1mg/ml water, 3 - C. gileadensis 1mg/ml 0.5% DMSO, 4 - C. gileadensis 0.1mg/ml 0.5% DMSO, 5 - water, 6 - 2%CHX and 7 - 0.5%DMSO. After the exposures, all discs were stained with a viability stain and scanned under a confocal laser scanning microscope. The percentage of dead bacteria was calculated using Imaris software. The data were submitted to Univariate analysis of variance and Tukey statistical tests (P &lt; 0.05). Results: C. gileadensis 1mg/ml water killed significantly more bacteria than all other groups (P &lt; 0.05). 2%CHX and other groups of C. gileadensis killed bacteria without a significant difference among themselves (P &gt; 0.05). In 0.5%DMSO and water groups only a few bacteria were killed. Conclusion: Commiphora gileadensis extract 1mg/ml in water killed significantly more bacteria in oral anaerobic multispecies biofilm than 2% CHX.

Natural products have a unique place in the healthcare industry. The genus Commiphora emerged as a potential medicinal source with huge benefits as evidenced through its use in various traditional and modern systems of medicine. Therefore, we aimed to prepare a concise review on the pharmacological activities and the indigenous uses of various plant species belonging to the genus Commiphora along with the structural information of various active botanical ingredients present in these plants based on the published literatures and scientific reports. To collect the published literatures on Commiphora in various journals; to study and classify the available information on the pharmacological uses and chemical constituents; and to present the gathered information as a precise review to serve as a potential reference for future research. Pharmacological and phytochemical data on Commiphora plant species were collected from various journals, books, reference materials, websites including scientific databases, etc. for compilation. This review article describes the various pharmacological properties of plants of Commiphora species viz., anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenic, antibacterial, anti-coagulant, antidicrocoeliasis, anti-epileptic, anti-fascioliasis, anti-fungal, anti-heterophyidiasis, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-hypothyroidism, anti-obesity, anti-osteoarthritic, antiosteoclastogenesis, anti-oxidant, anti-parasitic, anti-pyretic, anti-schistosomiasis, anti-septic, antithrombotic, anti-ulcer, cardioprotective, COX enzyme inhibitory, cytotoxic /anti-carcinogenic/anticancer, DNA cleavage, hypotensive, inhibits lipid peroxidation, inhibits NO and NO synthase production, insecticidal, local anesthetic, molluscicidal, smooth muscle relaxant, and tick repellent activities along with toxicity studies. Furthermore, the review also included various secondary metabolites isolated from various species of Commiphora genus along with their chemical structures serving as a ready resource for researchers. We conclude that the plant species belonging to the genus Commiphora possesses abundant pharmacological properties with a huge treasure of diverse secondary metabolites within themselves. This review indicates the necessity of further in-depth research, pre-clinical, and clinical studies with Commiphora genus, which may help to detect the unidentified potential of the Commiphora plant species.

The drylands of Ethiopia are well known for their natural gum and resin producing tree and shrub species such as Acacia, Boswellia, Commiphora and Sterculia. The production and trade volumes of gums and resins in the country showed a declining trend since 2010. The present review work is focused on availability of alternative underutilized tree and shrub species to indicate the diverse gum and resin market opportunities. Several Sub-Saharan African countries are producing gum and resin products from diversified species. Gum arabic is collected from Acacia senegal (L) Willd, Acacia seyal DEL, and Acacia polyacantha Willd species. Three countries namely Sudan, Nigeria, Chad contribute about 97% to the international market, while Ethiopia's contribution is 0.9%. World demand for karaya gum from Sterculia setigera DEL is about 7,000 tonne and in Africa, Senegal is the leading exporter. Despite the huge resources of A. senegal, A. seyal and A. polyacantha, Ethiopia producing very low quantity, and gum is collected from natural oozes of trunks or branches. S. setigera is also found in the country, although gum karaya is not yet under production. South and south eastern parts of Ethiopia hosts abundant species of Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora. Gum-resin products are collected from natural exudates by herdsmen, women and children while herding and doing other activities, indicating its adverse effects on quality and quantity. Very small proportions of Myrrh and gum opopanax enter the local market. Other constraints are, lack of appropriate institutions, infrastructure, tapping technologies and market information. Therefore, appropriate policy formulation, research and development interventions, are recommended for supporting sustainable management, production and marketing of products.

Species-specific molecular signature of Commiphora species of Saudi Arabia inferred from internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA.

The genus Commiphora has been widely used in traditional medicinal systems to treat pain, skin infections, diarrhoea and periodontal diseases. Oleo-gum resins of seven Commiphora species (C. myrrha, C. confusa, C. baluensis, C. pseudopaolii, C. guidotti, C. holtziana and C. kataf) were collected from Kenya and Ethiopia. Headspace analysis was determined using GCxGC–ToF–MS. In vitro evaluation of antimicrobial activity of acetone extracts were evaluated against a range of micro-organisms using microdilution assay. In addition, anti-quorum sensing activity of the tested Commiphora species was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively using Chromobacterium violaceum strain. α-Pinene (5.6–8.1%), β-caryophyllene (nd-16.5%), cis-β-ocimene (nd-7.4%), α-santalene (nd-40.8%), α-bourbonene (6.9–37.4%), β-elemene (nd-26.2%), curzerene (4.5–8.2%), p-cymene (1.8–54.5%), curzerenone (1.6–25.5%), (Z)-α-bisabolene (nd-10.4%), β-selinene (nd-9.8%), germacrene D (nd-8.4%), cresol methyl ether (nd-8.5%), 7-epi-sesquithujene (nd-8.8%), dehydro-aromadendrene (nd-36.9%), δ-elemene (nd-31.1%) and spathulenol (0.2–10.4%) were the major volatile constituents. Principal component analysis showed three clusters corresponding to three chemotypes within the dataset. The extracts exhibited good to moderate antibacterial activity against a panel of selected micro-organisms (MIC values: 0.06–8.0mg/mL). Commiphora holtziana displayed the best activity against Candida tropicalis (0.06–4.0mg/mL), while C. holtziana and C. myrrha exhibited the best anti-quorum sensing activity by inhibiting violacein production.

The present study was designed to investigate the antioxidant activity of Solenostemma argel, Commiphora myrrha and Vernonia amygdaline. The antioxidant activities were conducted via DPPH radical scavenging and iron chelating assays. Potent antioxidant activity was presented by S. argel for both DPPH and iron chelating ability. The highest chelating ability was showed by the petroleum ether extract with 60%. The other tested plants showed low antioxidant potential. This study give rise to antioxidant property of S. argel.

Babile Elephant Sanctuary (BES), in the semi-arid part of eastern Ethiopia, has long been known for comprising one of the globally threatened, ecologically isolated and possibly distinctive subsp. of elephant population (Loxodonta Africana orleansi). As this review describe a total 55 plant species composed of 37 genera and 24 families were identified. Out of these, shrubs have accounted for 94.9% while trees constituted only 5.1% of the total density. Fabaceae, Tiliaceae and Capparidaceae are the most dominant family 1 st , 2 nd and 3 rd dominant respectively. Browsing elephant, anthropogenic and invasive alian are the major threat of plant species in Babile elephant sanctuary. Acacia robusta, Acacia senegal, Commiphora erythraea, Acacia nilotica, Balanites glabra, Acacia mellifera, A. tortilis and A. seyal are the major useful plant and impacted species by human use, browsing elephant and invasive. Therefore, Future research should also focus on detailed assessment of current vegetation status in the Sanctuary; Rehabilitation by plantation especially the indigenous multi-purpose tree species that are highly threatened but still available in the valley should be given emphasis.

Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, a medicinal shrub of the family Burseraceae has been ruthlessly tapped for oleo-gum resin, thus killing its widespread populations in nature. Its regeneration being slow, the recruitment is also minimal. Consequently, existing sparse populations also face competition from its associates. Understanding vegetation composition and dynamics of associates of C. wightii are vital to arrive at clues for its ex-situ conservation and also for its in-situ populations build up. Present study carried out in 20 districts of Rajasthan at 604 sites revealed presence of C. wightii at 68 sites. Its associates were Acacia senegal, Euphorbia caducifolia, Grewia tenax, Prosopis juliflora, Acacia leucophloea and Boswellia serrata. In all the six districts, density of C. wightii varying from 1 to 20 per tenth hectare indicated its mutual co-existence with other species except P. juliflora. Regulating and controlling populations of P. juliflora emerged as a prime requirement to ensure success in both, in-situ and ex-situ conservation. Being ecologically co-dominant, it survives best in mixed plantation with suitable trees that serve as upper canopy in the plantation area. It also emerged that its optimum plantation density of 200 plants per hectare would most likely ensure its success in reintroduced paddocks.