Commercial Transport Operations Research Articles

Car or Cargo Bike? Determinants for the Use of a Small Vehicle Type in Urban Logistics: A Stated Preference Survey Among Commercial Transport Operators

To address the adverse effects of urban freight, downshifting to smaller vehicles, such as cargo bikes, has been indicated as a viable solution. Existing literature on freight mode choice rarely considers vehicles smaller than truck size. We aimed to fill this research gap by quantifying how vehicular, operational, trip-based, contextual, and individual determinants influenced the decision between cargo bikes and cars in urban logistics. To that end, a stated preference survey was conducted among 537 German organizations after they had been familiarized with cargo bikes through a 3-month vehicle trial period. Participants then took part in a survey in which they had to choose between the modes cargo bike, car, or neither of these two alternatives. The survey data were analyzed using a mixed logit model with 4,833 observations. The model estimations demonstrated that the values and signs of parameters were in accordance with both our expectations and the literature. The results indicated that cargo bikes were an attractive alternative to cars for delivery and service trips of short duration in fair weather. The probability of choosing a cargo bike over a car could be further increased by improving bike infrastructure or imposing parking limitations. The preference for cargo bike could be observed for respondents in dense urban centers and low-density parts of the country alike. Around 3 out of 10 respondents decided to buy their own cargo bike after the study, demonstrating the effectiveness of low-threshold testing programs in changing habits toward more sustainable mobility solutions.

What Matters in the Effectiveness of Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems? Monte Carlo Simulation of Uncertainties for TCAS II and ACAS Xa

TCAS II is a rule-based airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS) that is used in current commercial air transport operations, and ACAS Xa is a new optimization-based system. Operational validation studies have mainly used deterministic simulations of ACAS performance using various sets of encounters. Recently a new approach was developed, which employs Monte Carlo (MC) simulation of agent-based models to evaluate the impact of sensor errors and pilot response variability. This paper contrasts the results of both approaches in a comparison of TCAS II and ACAS Xa for various types of synthetic encounters. It was found that conventional estimates of near mid-air collision (NMAC) probabilities are often lower than the estimates achieved using MC simulation, and that the biases in the P(NMAC) estimates are consistently larger for ACAS Xa than for TCAS II. Contributions to unresolved risk are largest for pilot performance, then for encounter types, and finally for sensor errors. The contribution of non-responding pilots is much larger than the differences between TCAS II and ACAS Xa. It is concluded that the agent-based MC simulation overcomes the limitations in traditional evaluation of altimetry errors and pilot response, providing an independent means to effectively analyze the robustness of ACASs.

The Roles of Job Satisfaction and Perceived Supervisor Support in the Relationship between Followership Styles and Psychological Well-Being

<p>The quest to provide excellent services causes the aviation industry face challenges that can impair the well-being or “happiness” of its employees. Therefore, managing employee well-being is crucial for the industry to help its employees feel positive while serving the companies. This research aimed to examine the roles of followership styles, job satisfaction and perceived supervisor support in promoting psychological well-being in the Indonesian air transport operator contexts. Specifically, the research examined the impact of job satisfaction on psychological well-being and assessed whether job satisfaction itself was influenced by employees’ followership styles and their perceived supervisor support. A test was also performed to examine the moderating role of perceived supervisor support in the relationship between followership styles and job satisfaction. On-line questionnaires were distributed to potential respondents using a combination of convenience and purposive sampling. A number of 109 non-managerial employees from several Indonesian commercial and non-commercial air transport operators involved. Structural Equation Modeling was adopted to test the proposed hypotheses. The findings showed the majority of respondents enacted “exemplary followership” styles. This style positively related to job satisfaction. However, perceived supervisor support was not found to moderate the relationship. The managerial implication of the findings is outlined.</p>

Single-Pilot Aircraft in Commercial Air Transport Operations: A Comparison of Potential Architectures

Single-pilot operations (SPOs) in commercial air transport present a range of benefits and challenges, but there is a need to define architectures and compare them in different operational contexts. Here, we identified various combinations of architectural decisions based on the literature, and we compared them to current operations (in different operating contexts) on a safety versus cost tradespace. Safety was defined as a function of the pilot nominal operations workload, handling of off-nominal situations, and pilot incapacitation; whereas the cost was defined as a combination of acquisition and operating costs. Our analysis suggests that different classes of aircraft (wide bodies, narrow bodies, and regional jets) have different levels of benefits and costs in moving to SPOs. The capabilities of automation need to improve drastically before the second human in the flight deck can be replaced, and this is borne out by the dominance of human-centered architectures in the tradespace. The analysis also reveals that regional aircraft may be prime candidates to move to SPOs first because most regional architectures generate positive savings.

Unlocking the potential of solar electric vehicles for post-COVID recovery and growth in the transport sector in Ghana

The increasing effect of climate change as a result of CO2 emissions emanating from utilization of conventional energy resources is driving national and regional policies towards global energy transformation in all sectors, including the transportation sub-sector. Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), which use fossil fuel are the main contributors of CO2 emissions in the transport sub-sector. Grid-powered battery electric vehicles (BEV) and solar electric vehicles (SEV) have the potential to reduce emissions in the transportation sub-sector and are therefore being promoted in regions where solar radiation levels are appreciable. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is one of the regions that receives significant radiation levels compared to other parts of the world, however, countries in the sub-region are yet to tap into the enormous benefits of SEV. In this study, comparative lifecycle analysis has been conducted on the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Hyundai Ioniq (BEV), Sono Sion (SEV) and Toyota Corolla (ICEV) for commercial transport operations in SSA, with a case study in Ghana. Research was conducted on 100 drivers of 5-seater petrol/diesel light commercial vehicles (LCV) in the city of Accra and Kumasi. Data were taken on their driving profiles, average travel distance, fuel cost and maintenance cost. Their choices between ICEV, BEV and SEV were also ascertained. Our study revealed that 70% of LCV travel up to 300 km and below, daily. The total cost of ownership for LCV at an average annual travel distance of 60,000 km were 0.21 US$/km, 0.17 US$/km, 0.15 US$/km and 0.14 US$/km for Used-ICEV, New-ICEV, BEV and SEV for 20-year analysis period, respectively. The total cost savings with BEV and SEV usage are at least 28% and 34%, respectively, compared to traditional diesel or gasoline ICEVs. Payback periods for SEV and BEV compared to ICEV are 3.5 years and 4.5 years, respectively. Our study has revealed that there is potential emission savings of 70% and 75% for BEV and SEV, respectively, compared to ICEV. Finally, this study highlights that utilization of SEVs and BEVs for light vehicle commercial transportation in SSA can potentially lead to post-COVID recovery and growth in the sub-region, amidst increasing diesel and petrol prices for ICEVs.

A Study on Eco Hotels and Green Operations in Indian Hospitality (Hotel) Industry

Globalization is the trend towards increased commercial production, circulation, transportation, technology, tourism, and other corporate operations on a worldwide scale. Not only did this improve human dexterity, but it also raised living standards for people everywhere. However, it also heightens the ecological threat, which puts humans under stress in their surroundings. Thus, as the field of sustainability grows, so does the amount of study on how to achieve sustainability across all industries. Making an organization greener is a difficult endeavour that calls for a lot of work and the active involvement of both management and staff. Since 1950, as the number of emerging countries has increased, the global hotel business has experienced significant growth. According to earlier research, the number of international visitors is expected to climb by 4 to 5 percent a year over the next ten years, which will raise demand for hotel rooms. Due to increased environmental effect on a worldwide scale, eco hotels are becoming more and more important in the hotel industry. The impact of sustainable operations and their implementation in the Indian hotel industry will be examined in this study. The study's main focus is on diverse ecological practices, or ECOHOTELS. The report offers some social consequences of sustainable practices for environmental preservation for ecofriendly hotels and eco-friendly tourists.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION IN JOS METROPOLIS, NIGERIA.

The mobility of people and materials especially in the present days is one of the greatest challenges facing public transport services in an urban area. Thus, necessitate the investigation into the operational characteristics of public transportation in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria. The inquiry into the operational characteristics of public transportation in Jos was done via the collection of primary and secondary data and the primary data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The primary data were obtained through administering of questionnaires to commercial transport operators at 2 selected bus parks, 3 motor Parks, 7 Tricycle parks and 5 motorcycle stand points. Oral interview was also done on commercial transport operators to extract necessary information in relation to the aim and objectives of the study. Findings revealed that majority (77.3%) of public transport operators in Jos falls below 41 years, 93.3% earns between N1,000 to NN80,000 monthly, 48.5% were married while, 89% were literate, 58% of public transport vehicles were owned by individuals with 35%overloading of buses occurring at peak periods during week days. This study therefore, recommends that in Jos metropolis, Government should encourage and introduce the use of high occupancy vehicles as a means of public transport at designated traffic corridors to increase carrying capacity of vehicles in order reduce waiting time of passengers at bus parks. Also, avenues for soft loan scheme must be encouraged to help prospective operators in order to be able to afford buying vehicles for public transport services. Finally, Gender sensitive policies must be formulated by the Government to encourage female membership and participation.

Marshrutka (in)formality in southern Russian cities and its role in contentious transport policies

Most Russian cities are currently facing major transformation processes in the public transport supply. Commercial paratransit services, known as marshrutkas, have been criticised heavily for unsafe and uncomfortable facilities as well as for anti-social business behaviour, prone to tax evasion and daily penny wars on the street. Consequently, many municipalities have enforced various strategies to restrict informal marshrutka services. This article compares the distinct policy strategies of two municipalities, Rostov on Don and Volgograd, and discusses the different outcomes. When analysing the case studies, two prevailing discourses seem to have informed the locally applied transport policies: a neoliberal, free market approach that perceives the loosely regulated commercial transport operations superior to state-led services and a rather neo-modernist perception of informal transport operation, calling for a rigorous push back of marshrutka mobility. Prominent in both policy discourses is the notion of informality as an instrument to govern the transport setting.Reviewing the developing field of informal transport studies, the article argues that the governments of the respective cities have employed (simplified) notions of informality as a legitimisation argument to take action. A closer perspective on the daily operations, however, unveils a socially institutionalised transport service full of complex operation practices beyond policy-strategic divides between the formal and informal. The contribution utilises the formal/informal nexus successfully developed in urban studies and applies it to international transport studies. Thus it enables the unveiling of insufficiencies in urban transport provision without falling in the trap of superficial modernisation narratives.

Can Transport Operator Schemes Deliver Regional Sustainability Benefits? The Case of the UK Northern Powerhouse Region

UK devolved responsibility for planning future transport demands is shared amongst regional and local transport administrations. In Northern England, Transport for the North (TfN) provides a unified transport strategy, encompassing planning for future demand, highlighting the importance of freight transport movements throughout the Northern Powerhouse region. Given the importance of transport in fostering economic growth, this paper demonstrates the applicability of compliance and recognition schemes targeted at the UK’s commercial fleet transport operators for achieving the wider sustainability goals of the Northern Powerhouse. The research investigates the benefits of operator recognition and compliance schemes, and their alignment with strategic agendas, including the implementation of clean air zones. Results explore the extent to which Total Quality Management (TQM) and continuous improvement support regional sustainability agendas through transport operator schemes. This research is based upon surveys and interviews with transport operators from across the UK, including the Northern Powerhouse region. Thematic analysis examined responses relating to the perceived barriers and opportunities around scheme membership and the extent TQM and continuous improvement support regional agendas. Analysis reveals ideal transport operator profiles for deriving the greatest benefit from scheme membership, whilst introducing a set of business readiness conventions for benchmarking transport operator compliance activities.

Travel Time Differences between Cargo Cycles and Cars in Commercial Transport Operations

Cargo cycles are gaining more interest among commercial users from different business sectors, and they compete with cars in urban commercial transport. Though many studies show the potential of cargo cycles, there is still a reluctance to deploy them. One possible reason for this is the lack of knowledge regarding their suitability in relation to travel time. Therefore, this study aims to explore cargo cycles’ travel time performance by quantifying the travel time differences between them and conventional vehicles for commercial trips. The authors compare real-life trip data from cargo cycles with Google’s routed data for cars. By doing this, the authors explore the factors affecting the travel time difference and propose a model to estimate this difference. The attributes for the model were selected keeping in mind the ease of obtaining values for the variables. Results indicate cycling trip distance to be the most significant variable. The study shows that expected travel time difference for trips with distances between 0 and 20 km (12.4 mi) ranges from -5 min (cargo cycle 5 min faster) to 40 min with a median of 6 min. This value can decrease if users take the optimal cycling route and the traffic conditions are worse for cars. Although what is an acceptable amount of travel time difference depends on the user, practitioners can be certain of the travel time difference they can expect, which enables them to assess the suitability of cargo cycles for their commercial operations.

Can subjective sleep problems detect latent sleep disorders among commercial drivers?

IntroductionLong-haul truck drivers experience poor sleep health and heightened accident rates, and undiagnosed sleep disorders contribute to these negative outcomes. Subjective sleep disorder screening tools may aid in detecting drivers’ sleep disorders. This study sought to evaluate the value of subjective screening methods for detecting latent sleep disorders and identifying truck drivers at-risk for poor sleep health and safety-relevant performance. Materials and MethodsUsing cross-sectional data from 260 long-haul truck drivers, we: 1) used factor analysis to identify possible latent sleep disorders; 2) explored the construct validity of extracted sleep disorder factors by determining their associations with established sleep disorder risk factors and symptoms; and 3) explored the predictive validity of resulting sleep disorder factors by determining their associations with sleep health and safety-relevant performance. ResultsFive latent sleep disorder factors were extracted: 1) circadian rhythm sleep disorders; 2) sleep-related breathing disorders; 3) parasomnias; 4) insomnias; 5) and sleep-related movement disorders. Patterns of associations between these factors generally corresponded with known risk factors and symptoms. One or more of the extracted latent sleep disorder factors were significantly associated with all the sleep health and safety outcomes. DiscussionUsing subjective sleep problems to detect latent sleep disorders among long-haul truck drivers may be a timely and effective way to screen this highly mobile occupational segment. This approach should constitute one component of comprehensive efforts to diagnose and treat sleep disorders among commercial transport operators.

Drag reduction in a class 8 truck - scaled down model

Trucks are heavy load vehicles used mainly for commercial transport operations. There are several classes of heavy duty commercial vehicles classified based on the weight loaded. More than 50% of the engine output power in such trucks is utilized to overcome the drag. Drag force in automobiles is the resistance offered by air on vehicles at higher speeds. Class 8 trucks suffer higher drag when compared to other classes. In the present work, a numerical model is developed using a commercial code ANSYS FLUENT to predict the drag coefficient value. The effects of gap width and cab front radius with a constant fairing is analysed using the numerical model developed. A Class 8 model truck with minimal drag coefficient having constant fairing and optimized gap width between the trailer and cab is proposed.

Функціонування муніципального авіаційного транспорту як один з майбутніх видів аваційної діяльності

Представлені основні принципи муніципального повітряного транспорту в межах мегаполісу. Основні завдання створення муніципального транспорту визначені для подальшого розвитку авіаційних технологій для житлово-комунального господарства, життєзабезпечення міста та його повітряно-транспортної системи. З метою подальшого розвитку авіаційної техніки в інтересах міської економіки й життя міста, необхідно вирішити три основні завдання: розвиток авіаційної техніки і насиченості міста авіаційного парку легкими вертольотами, які забезпечать розв'язання спеціальних завдань в інтересах міських служб, комерційних транспортних і повітряних операцій; розвиток міської інфраструктури авіації, в тому числі вертодромів і вертолітних майданчиків; організація безпечного використання повітряного простору над містом. Використання технології в авіації може бути здійснене при забезпеченні санітарних та екологічних норм охорони навколишнього середовища.

The relative importance of real-time in-cab and external feedback in managing fatigue in real-world commercial transport operations

ABSTRACTObjective: Real-time driver monitoring systems represent a solution to address key behavioral risks as they occur, particularly distraction and fatigue. The efficacy of these systems in real-world settings is largely unknown. This article has three objectives: (1) to document the incidence and duration of fatigue in real-world commercial truck-driving operations, (2) to determine the reduction, if any, in the incidence of fatigue episodes associated with providing feedback, and (3) to tease apart the relative contribution of in-cab warnings from 24/7 monitoring and feedback to employers.Methods: Data collected from a commercially available in-vehicle camera-based driver monitoring system installed in a commercial truck fleet operating in Australia were analyzed. The real-time driver monitoring system makes continuous assessments of driver drowsiness based on eyelid position and other factors. Data were collected in a baseline period where no feedback was provided to drivers. Real-time feedback to drivers then occurred via in-cab auditory and haptic warnings, which were further enhanced by direct feedback by company management when fatigue events were detected by external 24/7 monitors. Fatigue incidence rates and their timing of occurrence across the three time periods were compared.Results: Relative to no feedback being provided to drivers when fatigue events were detected, in-cab warnings resulted in a 66% reduction in fatigue events, with a 95% reduction achieved by the real-time provision of direct feedback in addition to in-cab warnings (p < 0.01). With feedback, fatigue events were shorter in duration a d occurred later in the trip, and fewer drivers had more than one verified fatigue event per trip.Conclusions: That the provision of feedback to the company on driver fatigue events in real time provides greater benefit than feedback to the driver alone has implications for companies seeking to mitigate risks associated with fatigue. Having fewer fatigue events is likely a reflection of the device itself and the accompanying safety culture of the company in terms of how the information is used. Data were analysed on a per-truck trip basis, and the findings are indicative of fatigue events in a large-scale commercial transport fleet. Future research ought to account for individual driver performance, which was not possible with the available data in this retrospective analysis. Evidence that real-time driver monitoring feedback is effective in reducing fatigue events is invaluable in the development of fleet safety policies, and of future national policy and vehicle safety regulations. Implications for automotive driver monitoring are discussed.

FAA Safety Approvals in Commercial Space Transportation

A regulatory tool used by the United States called a safety approval may be appropriate for use internationally to enhance safety, enable the commercial space transportation industry, achieve greater interoperability, and streamline license applications. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration's Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) licenses, regulates, and promotes U.S. commercial space transportation, including launch and reentry operations and the operation of spaceports. A safety approval can be issued by the FAA for a particular safety element of a launch vehicle, a reentry vehicle, a safety system, process, service, or any identified component thereof, and qualified and trained personnel performing a process or function related to licensed launch activities. The FAA determines whether use of a safety element will jeopardize public health and safety, or safety of property, when used or employed within a defined envelope, parameter, or situation. A safety approval is voluntary. It does not provide any authority to conduct activities for which an FAA commercial space transportation license is required. One of the primary advantages of a safety approval is that launch and reentry vehicle operators can use an approved safety element without having to go through a re-examination of the element's fitness and suitability for a proposed launch or reentry operation as part of a license application process. This also allows a company or organization to develop an element independently as a potential business product and obtain a government stamp of approval. From a business perspective, an FAA safety approval can aid in the marketing of a unique space product that might traditionally be seen as an ordinary component or process in the larger scheme of a government space program. It can also spur innovation by creating a path for alternative approaches and enable a second-tier supplier or service new industry growth opportunities in commercial space transportation. From an international perspective, adopting a safety approval regulation similar to the FAA may increase interoperability with U.S. vehicles, including spaceports operations. There are seven active FAA safety approvals in the United States in areas such as training for crew and spaceflight participants and technician credentialing. This article will provide an overview of the FAA safety approval regulation and its potential advantages, details of the FAA guide to apply for a safety approval, and examples of existing safety approvals.

A Dynamic Programming Approach to Replacement of Transport Vehicles in Benin City, Nigeria

Every organisation has an objective to optimise the utility function of its available operational assets. For commercial vehicle transport operators, the goal is to operate the vehicles for as long as they can make net contribution to the organisation’s corporate objective. Hence, when these vehicles are replaced becomes an issue for strategic decision making. Unfortunately many of the commercial bus transport companies lack the skill to undertake the required empirical evaluation necessary to provide objective data and information for making the vehicle replacement decisions. This study was therefore an effort to bridge this gap in knowledge. Only two out of the fourteen transporter companies of interest operating in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria agreed to provide the required data for the study which covered the period 2008 to 2013 and for Toyota brand of buses only. The data was subjected to backward recursive dynamic programming analysis. The results showed that the four years fixed-age vehicle replacement policy employed by commercial bus transport companies in Benin City was optimum only for the Toyota high roof types of buses. The study thus recommends that commercial vehicle owners/operators should endeavour to keep reliable, relevant and up to records of their vehicles. While it is advocated that adequate and continuous training of key staff on equipment replacement should also be encouraged, operators of mass-transit systems can seek the assistance of Operations Research experts in order to enhance their decisions regarding vehicle replacement policies.

Mobility characteristics of the elderly and their associated level of satisfaction with transport services in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria

Older people are perceived to face different problems while commuting. Studies on mobility of the elderly and associated constraints are, in Nigeria, recent but scanty. Hence, this paper explores elderly mobility characteristics, commuting patterns, quality of transport services and problems associated with the use of public transport services. Questionnaires were administered to 250 elderly aged 60 years and above using a purposive sampling technique. Findings showed that 58.4% of the sampled elderly lack personal means of transportation. The study revealed that an elderly generates about 2.88 trips per day. Trip destinations within a distance of 2km of respondents׳ residence accounted for 65.60% trips generated. Daily frequency accounted for 38.56% of the visits to four trip destinations (work, social, religion and market). Walking accounts for 36.89% of travel mode of the elderly. Transport constraints identified include high transport fare, lack of bus stops, poor nature of roads, traffic congestion, poor attitude of commercial transport operators and the absence of state owned transport services. There is also a low level of satisfaction with transport services with significant variation in satisfaction with transport service among the different age groups. The paper suggests that government should include issues of elderly mobility and safety in the nation׳s transport policy in addition to the provision of affordable public transport services for the elderly.

Individual Research Grants Versus Centers of Excellence: Maximizing the Benefits of Research and Innovation

In support of its regulatory mission to ensure safety of commercial aviation and space transportation operations, the Congress has provided authority to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the U.S. government to conduct research and development (R&D) at universities (not including contracts) using two distinct approaches: traditional aviation research grants and the Centers of Excellence (COEs). While isolated and episodic research may be best served by individual research grants (IRGs), strategically executed research programs are well served through COEs. U.S. policy reinforces the connection between federally funded R&D and the resultant social and economic benefits to the general public. Both approaches are employed within the FAA's current research “portfolio.” This analysis demonstrates the unique attributes of COEs over IRGs in being better able to achieve the high-level policy goals. In summary, COEs are well suited (often better suited) than IRGs to stimulate economic growth through more effective workforce development, increased innovation creation and diffusion, and increased alignment with industry needs. COEs accomplish this by educating the professionals of the future, developing a research network that makes available specialized resources over the course of a decade, and solving strategic problems in research areas critical to the industry and the nation as needed.

Acceptance of human remains for carriage by air– some concerns in security and safety

The carriage by air of human remains has primarily concerned the global community in the context of sanitation and safety. However, some jurisdictions, particularly the United States, have provisions and procedures for screening human remains along the same lines as they do cargo. As this article will discuss, the trouble with this subject is that it has not been given the attention it requires, which has led to a hopelessly fragmented approach in regulating this aspect of air cargo. The High Level Conference on Aviation Security, convened by the International Civil Aviation Organization from 12 to 14 September 2012 in Montreal, focused on three overarching themes - cargo security, sustainability of security measures and innovation in addressing threats to aviation security. The Conference did not address the carriage by air of human remains from a security perspective. However, if one were to apply one of the key principles recognized by the Conference – that each State should ensure that appropriate security controls, including screening where applicable, are applied to cargo and mail, prior to their being loaded onto an aircraft engaged in passenger commercial air transport operations, the operative words would be “security controls” which bring to bear the reality that different States could have different security controls and that they should be harmonized. This article discusses the manner in which such controls can be harmonized from a regulatory perspective in the context of the carriage by air of human remains.

The Annual Incapacitation Rate of Commercial Pilots

Scant data are available on the annual incapacitation rate of aircrew. This study analyzes all incapacitations occurring among UK commercial pilots, in flight and off duty, in 2004 to derive a baseline minimum annual incapacitation rate for the UK commercial pilot population. The study cohort was all professional pilots holding a valid UK/JAR (Joint Aviation Requirements) Class 1 medical certificate and license in 2004. Three data sources were used to identify episodes of incapacitation: the statutory notification of prolonged illness, personal injury, or pregnancy to the UK Civil Aviation Authority; Mandatory Occurrence Reports (MORs) for in-flight medical incidents; and death certificates. The total number of incapacitations was expressed as a proportion of the number of professional pilots to give an incapacitation rate. In 2004 there were 16,145 UK/JAR professional pilot license holders. Of the notified medical events, 36 presented as incapacitations; half were cardiac or cerebrovascular. In-flight incapacitations were predominantly of psychiatric cause. There were four sudden deaths. The type of incapacitation varied with age. A male pilot in his 60s had 5 times the risk of incapacitation of a male pilot in his 40s. The annual incapacitation rate was 40/16,145 = 0.25%. Aeromedical emphasis on minimizing cardiovascular risk and monitoring the mental health of pilots remains appropriate. Age should influence the content and periodicity of regulatory aeromedical assessments. The demonstrated annual incapacitation rate of 0.25% may provide a basis for quantifying the acceptable risk for a pilot undertaking single pilot commercial air transport operations.