Commercial Timbers Research Articles

Animating historical resource geographies: Encountering the guitar's North American material traces

This article seeks to animate historical resource geographies by uncovering unforeseen material lineages and foregrounding the lived experiences of otherwise unremembered resource workers. We revisit research on the historical resource geographies of the guitar, adapting what McGeachan (2018) calls ‘the trace’ to connect material archival fragments with visceral, ethnographic encounters in multiple sites, in the present. Unlike classical instruments with extensive documentation, the guitar's historical resource geographies remain opaque, being mass manufactured since the 1800s from commercial timbers with vague provenance. Here, we trace one guitar wood, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) — the most common for soundboards — from a chance discovery in a Pennsylvania factory archive to the Pacific Northwest to confirm colonial, industrial, and military origins. Sitka's material traces also facilitated impromptu ethnographic encounters, including opportunities to meet surviving ex-workers in Hoquiam, Washington state, who, many decades ago, milled wood for musical instruments. Following the trace in multiple, unexpected directions enabled us to sense the working lives of ex-timber workers while confronting environmental legacies, bearing witness to the people, places, and trees behind the guitar. Our research validates feminist and anticolonial methodological approaches that, while tracing material fragments in time and space, encounter the world viscerally. Resulting empirical explanations are richer, open to emotional ambivalence and ongoing dialogue.

Feeding preferences and responses of subterranean termite on different commercial timbers

The purpose of this study was to find the feeding preferences of Odontotermes obesus termites on different types of commercial timbers along with the evaluation of different timbers and their resistance and non- resistance behavior under lab and field conditions at 100ºC. There were six wood species which were evaluated regarding attack and damage which include Azadirachta indica (Neem), Eucalyptus globulus (Safaida), Ficus religiosa (Peeple), Mangifera indica (Aamb), Dalbergia sisso (Taali or Sheesham), Acacia arabia (Keekar). Two weeks’ laboratory and 3 months of field trials were performed with suitable conditions. The samples of every six wood species were prepared and exposed to different species of termites by burying them in the active nests of termites. This practical was performed at Wagah border 30 km away from Lahore. After this time, the factors which were to be noted were wood mass loss and visual appearance of each sample. This also includes a choice and no choice feeding test. This trial is made to evaluate the nonresistance of wood to termite attack. After trials have been made, it has been noted that the most palatable wood is M. indica, F. relgiosa and A. indica and the most resistance woods are is A. arabica, E. globulus and D. sisso in no choice trials and in choice trials the most palatable wood is M. indica and most resistance wood is D. sisso and A. arabica.

Examination of wood adhesive bonds via MicroCT: The influence of pre-gluing surface machining treatments for southern pine, spotted gum, and Darwin stringybark timbers

The successful manufacturing of glulam from several important Australian commercial timbers is quite challenging due to difficulties in gluing. Improvements in adhesive bond performance of spotted gum, Darwin stringybark, and southern pine timber have been achieved using alternative pre-gluing surface machining methods, e.g., face milling and sanding-post planing, when compared to conventional planing methods. In order to improve the understanding of the effects that different surface machining methods have on adhesive bond performance, this study used micro X-ray computed tomography and microscopy to assess key adhesive bond criteria. There was a considerable loss in the amount of adhesive after the wet and dry test cycles for all species. There was also an extremely high frequency of voids in the glue lines for all species, which would negatively impact bond strength and durability. Face mill prepared timber boards resulted in thicker glue lines and greater resistance to adhesion loss, compared to boards prepared via planing. For the two hardwood species, face milling also resulted in greater adhesive penetration; however, for southern pine, there were no significant differences in adhesive penetration between the three surface machining treatments. Adhesive penetration was much deeper in southern pine compared to spotted gum and Darwin stringybark.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy of the Wood Composite from Neolamarckia Cadamba and Endospermum Diadenum for Particleboard Application

This research is to characterize the potentials wood species for particleboard alternative materials. The wood species are Neolamarckia Cadamba sp. (NC) and Endospermum Diadenum sp. (ED), which were selected forest plantations in Malaysia due to rapid growing species. Indeed, also known as lesser-known commercial timbers species. The NC and ED functional group analysis chemistry were examined using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis (FT-IR). The significant bands emerged at 3600 to 3050 cm -1, which ascribed to Amines’ stretching (N-H groups). The intense peak at 2850 cm -1 is related to chains of C-H bonding.

Carbon Storage of Single Tree and Mixed Tree Dominant Species Stands in a Reserve Forest—Case Study of the Eastern Sub-Himalayan Region of India

In recent decades, carbon (C) management is an important point on the agenda to identify the best viable mitigation strategies for its reduction. The study was conducted at Jaldapara National Park located in the Eastern Himalayan region of India. The study quantified litter production, decomposition, periodic nutrient release, soil fertility status, and soil organic carbon (SOC) of five major forest stands i.e., Tectona grandis (TGDS), Shorea robusta (SRDS), Michelia champaca (MCDS), Lagerstroemia parviflora (LPDS) and miscellaneous stand (MS). A stratified random nested quadrate method was adopted for sample collection. Results reveal that the greatest amount of litter production and decomposition was under MCDS followed by MS, LPDS, SRDS, and the smallest under TGDS. The material annual turnover through litter decomposition in all the stands varies between 96.46% and 99.34%. The content and amount of the available nutrients in litter varied significantly among the stands. Moreover, release of these nutrients was nearly equal to the amount available in the initial litter mass. In general, the magnitude of the total nutrient return was in the same order as the total litter fall and the nutrient availability was more closely related to litter nutrient content and soil organic carbon. The range of pH (4.86–5.16), EC (0.34–0.50), soil moisture (27.01–31.03) and available primary nutrients (N: (0.21–0.26 Mg/ha), P: (0.09–0.12 Mg/ha), K: (0.13–0.14 Mg/ha)) also varied significantly among the stands. Significant positive correlations were observed between SOC, N and K. Both the fertility indices exhibited no definite pattern in the stands but a significant correlation between the two indicates the healthy soil fertility status of the stands. SOC varies significantly under different forest stands, but the greatest content was found under MS. The estimated SOC ranges between 75.9 and 107.7 Mg ha−1 up to 60 cm and is reported to be below the Indian average of 182.94 Mg ha−1. The present study strongly recommends that Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Michelia champaca, and Lagerstroemia parviflora should be the important commercial timbers of the Eastern Himalayan region because they may help further to increase the C sink in agricultural and degraded landscapes.

Influence of mechanical surface preparation methods on the bonding of southern pine and spotted gum: Tensile shear strength of lap joints

Southern pine and spotted gum are two of Australia’s most important locally produced commercial timbers. However, internationally, they are amongst the most problematic species to glue cost-effectively, especially for sawn-laminate-based structural engineered wood products, such as glulam and cross-laminated timber. This study investigated the efficacy of different pre-gluing wood surface machining preparations on the tensile shear strength of lap shear samples prepared from both species. Surface machining methods tested included planing, face milling, and sanding post-planing with 40 and 80 grit sandpaper. Wood face milling is not currently used commercially in Australia and has not previously been adequately tested on Australian commercial timbers to improve wood adhesion. Planing is currently the most common method used internationally for preparing wood surfaces for gluing. For both species, face milling with fast feed speed (45 m/min), slow cutter speed (57 m/s), and sanding treatments post-planing resulted in significantly higher tensile shear strength compared to planing for lap shear samples that had been subjected to an accelerated weathering process. Performance differences in tensile shear strength between surface machining methods are likely to be related to the effects of these machining methods on surface roughness, fibrillation, and sub-surface cell damage.

The influence of mechanical surface preparation methods on southern pine and spotted gum wood properties: Wettability and permeability

The demand for engineered wood products (EWPs) continues to rise internationally. However, for some important Australian commercial timbers such as plantation grown southern pine and native forest sourced spotted gum, a major impediment to achieving commercially viable EWP production is difficulties experienced in gluing – particularly for sawn laminate based EWPs such as glulam. Wettability and permeability have a major influence on wood adhesion. This study investigated the efficacy of different surface machining preparations on the wettability and permeability of southern pine and spotted gum. For both species, planing resulted in poor wettability, whereas face milling and sanding treatments post-planing improved wettability. Wettability increased in southern pine earlywood compared to latewood; and wettability decreased for both species with increased time post-surface machining. Planing resulted in the highest permeability for southern pine but the lowest permeability for spotted gum. Face milling resulted in higher permeability compared to sanding treatments.

Inventory of wooden ship materials and determination of its alternative materials through wood properties approach: case studies in the Riau Islands, the Northern and Southern Coast of Java

Indonesia is an archipelago country with approximately two-thirds of its territory consisting of oceans, so that inter-islands transportation has become one of the most important economic aspects. Traditional wooden ships are commonly used by local people in the coastal areas for transportation to support their needs. Several wood species which have high durability are commonly used for making wooden ship component such as Eusideroxylon zwageri (ulin), Vitex sp. (laban), Tectona grandis (teak), and Instia bijuga (merbau). This study aims to determine the alternative materials for wooden ship based on inventory at the Riau islands, the Northern and Southern Coast of Java. Exploring the alternative materials for wooden ship is important to optimize the utilization of lesser- and least-known timbers and address the problem of decreasing supply of major commercial timbers. This study has identified many wood species used by coastal fishermen for making wooden ship. Identification of wood species was carried out using microscopic observation based on IAWA standard, while the determination of alternative materials was undertaken through wood properties approach. The results show that there were various wood species used as raw materials for ship components. Some identified wood species are Tectona grandis (teak), Shorea sp. (balau and light-red meranti), Dichrostachys cinerea (pung), Ormosia subseraceae (kupang), Lumnitzera littorea (teruntum), Alseodaphne sp. (medang). Several alternative wood species to substitute current materials are elaborated in the paper.

Conservation Strategy of a vulnerable species of ‘Rosewood’ (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb) by Insect Pollinator Identification

Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb) is a vulnerable species with quality and commercial timbers. Hence, a conservation is necessary to prevent rosewood from extinction in the near future. Information on insect pollinators is fundamental for initiating the rosewood conservation in wildlife. Insect pollinators are highly beneficial to bring fertilization. This research aims to identify the insect pollinators on rosewood plants. The research was implemented in Purwodadi Botanic Garden used Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three replication. This research conducted when the flowers bloomed in September 2018 starting from 07.00 – 11.00 am. The insect abundance was calculated via a scoring method. The observation showed 5 types of the visiting insect pollinators in the rosewood collection of the Purwodadi Botanic Garden. Such five types of insects include Xylocarpa confusa, X. fenestrate, X. iridipennis, Apis cerrana, and Polistes metricus In term of the level of abundance, there are two species of pollinators found, namely X. confusa and A. cerana. Among the two, X. confusa is the most dominating species of pollinators on rosewood of around 25 bees. In accordance with the results of the research, it is necessary to develop a conservation strategy of X. confusa for rosewood in wildlife. One method of conserving the pollinator is by establishing a habitat to support the pollinators’ lives. The existence of X. confusa and A. cerana can preserve rosewood plants and save them from extinction.

A new atlas and macroscopic wood identification software package for Italian timber species

Abstract Wood identification has never been more important to serve the purpose of global forest protection, by controlling international illegal timber trade and enabling the enforcement of timber trade regulations. Macroscopic wood identification is the fastest method for the first identification of an unknown timber and, with proper training, it can be performed by operators in the timber industry, restorers and curators of cultural heritage, wood traders, designers, students and customs officers. Here we describe a wood atlas and accompanying software, SIR-Legno, developed for the identification of 48 Italian timber species based on a recently proposed list of macroscopic features for wood identification. For each species the atlas provides a complete macroscopic description plus information on natural durability, end-use class, physico-mechanical properties, conservation status, maximum diameter of the bole and most frequent uses. For each genus covered by the atlas, information about species number, CITES-listed species, main commercial timbers, similarly-named timbers from other genera, geographical distribution and notes on species or species group recognition at macroscopic and microscopic level are provided. SIR-Legno is an educational product, a handy identification key and a tool to search woods by their natural durability, end-use class and physico-mechanical properties. Both the atlas and the software can be freely downloaded from the web. Thanks to the adoption of a codified list of characters and a transferable design, SIR-Legno can be easily replicated or expanded to other databases in order to include new species. SIR-Legno is freeware and works on any version of Windows.

Qualitative and quantitative determination of resistance of twenty two Malaysian commercial timbers through subterranean termite feeding behavior

The durability of wood or the natural resistance of wood against termites is an extremely variable property The durability of Malaysian commercial timber species has been reviewed based on the European Standard laboratory trials of the Heartwood of mature timbers harvested from the natural forest Based on this the European standard EN was used for termites test Coptotermes curvignathus was introduced to different wood species in controlled conditions for weeks The efficacy in wood degradation was calculated based on average of weight loss and visual rating of each timber species The results showed that timber species fall under durable and species under moderately durable while the other species under susceptible class

The Morphology and Mechanical Study on <i>Neolamarckia cadamba</i> and <i>Endospermum diadenum</i> in Wood Composite for Particleboard Application

This research was carried out to investigate the morphology of particleboard by using lesser-known commercial timbers (LKCT) species which are well-known in scientific name as neolamarckia cadamba (NC) and endospermum diadenum (ED). NC and ED are fast growing species available in Peninsular Malaysia. Single layer particleboard was fabricated from urea formaldehyde (UF) blended with NC and ED at different species ratio. The morphological observation on particleboard was conducted using field emission scanning electron microscopy. Particleboard boards with different resin content and species ratio. The results indicated that 7:3 of NC: ED with ratio at 12% of UF have a significant effect in term of surface morphology compared to 1:0 of NC: ED. This can be proved through mechanical and physical properties testing where NC: ED particleboard panel with 7:3 ratio exhibit the highest strength according to EN standard. NC particles can be used as a raw materials to wood-based particleboard for general purpose application.

Control of Internationally Traded Timber - The Role of Macroscopic and Microscopic Wood Identification against Illegal Logging

As a contribution to global forest protection international laws and timber regulations are currently enacted, such as the USA Lacey Act, the European Timber regulation (EUTR) and, most recently, the Illegal Logging Prohibition Act in Australia. All such regulations prohibit the import and trade of illegally forested wood and wood products. Regarding these new regulations wood traders are required to exercise “due diligence” including the correct declaration and origin of wood species. The identification of the timber is also important for the assessment of product properties (viz. consumer protection) as lower-grade substitute timbers are imported at a distinctly increasing rate. In the context of these new challenges wood anatomy provides the most valuable support for practical wood identification and is routinely applied in the daily control of wood and wood products. Using light microscopic techniques, up to 100 anatomical characters can be used following the internationally standardized IAWA lists of “Microscopic Features for Hardwood and Softwood Identification”. Overall, the microscopic descriptions of about 8,700 taxa of hardwoods are currently available and documented in several computerized databases, e.g., InsideWood or Commercial timbers (Delta-Intkey-System). By using these important references, the Thunen Centre of Competence on the Origin of Timber, Germany has answered more than 1,000 official requests (including approx. 5,000 specimens) for microscopic wood identification since the implementation of the EUTR in Germany (March 2013).

Применение канатных установок на трелевке лесоматериалов в горных районах и на грунтах с низкой несущей способностью

Применение канатных установок на трелевке лесоматериалов в горных районах и на грунтах с низкой несущей способностью

Étude de la croissance diamétrique de quatre essences de bois d’oeuvre exploitées à l’Est du Cameroun

Objectives: This article examines the diametric growth of 4 commercial species, with poor natural regeneration, exploited in eastern Cameroon. The species are Erythrophleum suaveolens (tali), Mansonia altissima (bété), Pericopsis elata (assaméla) and Triplochiton scleroxylon (ayous). Methodology and results: For this purpose, permanent monitoring growth devices constituted by permanent circuits were installed. After 3 years of annual measurements of the tree diameter, a periodic diametric medium growth of 0.68 cm / year for E. suaveolens, 0.37 cm / year for M. altissima, 0.32 cm / year for P. elata and 0.70 cm / year for T. scleroxylon was obtained. Considering the periodic medium growth of two diameter classes below the minimum diameter for logging, a new replenishment rate for the 4 species was calculated.Conclusion and application of findings:These replenishment rates were compared to the replenishment rate obtained using the diametric growth set by the Cameroonian government. There is an overestimation of the possibilities by the administration for M. altissima and T. scleroxylon and an underestimation of the possibilities in the case of E. suaveolens. For P. elata, the replenishment rate obtained in this study permanent devices is substantially similar to those calculated with the diametric growth proposed by the Cameroonian state. The results of this study will serve as a reference to the sustainable management of species with low diametric growth by raising their minimum logging diameter. For species with low natural regeneration as those considered in this study, silvicultural measures should be proposed.Keywords: commercial timbers; management plan; diametric growth; permanent devices; replenishment rate.

Timber species assessment in Wari-Maro forest in Benin Republic

Forest degradation has been worsening over the past years by the numerous populations seeking a means of living, without respecting minimum conservation rules. Converting forests into timber is another cause of deforestation. In Wari-Maro, a protected forest, timber tree species such as, Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Khaya senegalensis, Pseudocedrela kostchyi, Ceibapentanda andChlorophora excels were exploited for commercial use in Benin. The study aimed to assess the status of timber (commercial timbers) species in Wari-Maro forest in Benin. The methodology used was based on satellite images processing for identification of the vegetation types. The sampling plots were established in each type of vegetation for assessing the different timbers species listed above. The results show that Afzelia africana was less than three plants per hectare and the extreme classes were not represented. The same results were obtained with Khaya senegalensis. The results have also shown that P. erinaceus and P. kostchyi were represented in all classes with the number of plants less than 8 per hectare. The analysis has proved that these last two species were overexploited after the scarcity of Afzelia africana and Khaya senegalensis. Furthermore, Pterocarpus erinaceus andPseudocedrela kostchyi were exported overseas. Key words: Protected forest, Wari-Maro, timber species assessment, sampling plots, Benin.

Variation in resistance to marine borers in commercial timbers from Turkey, as assessed by marine trial and laboratory screening

Commercial timbers from Turkey used in coastal construction and boat building were tested for their resistance to marine wood-boring invertebrates in a marine trial and in a laboratory screening test. The timbers tested were beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky), oak (Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl.), chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The marine trial was conducted over a period of 5 months at Mersin on the southern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Activity by teredinid (Mollusca, Bivalvia) borers during this period was very high, resulting in the maximum rating of 4 on the EN 275 scale for P. sylvestris sapwood and heartwood panels. Q. petraea panels averaged 2.8 and C. sativa panels were attacked the least with a mean rating of 2.3. There was little variation between the timbers tested in the size of the shells of the teredinids found, and so variation in the level of attack can be ascribed to fewer animals colonising C. sativa and Q. petraea than P. sylvestris. About one half of the teredinids identified were Teredo navalis (Linnaeus 1758), one quarter Bankia carinata (JE Gray 1827), and one quarter Nototeredo norvagica (Spengler 1792). No evidence of preference for a particular timber by any of these species was observed. Teeth on the ridges of the shells of teredinids from C. sativa were partially or wholly immersed in a dark brown substance that might reduce the boring efficiency of the shell. Some attacking by limnoriids (Isopoda, Crustacea) was also detected. Specimens of the amphipod crustacean Chelura sp. were observed on panels of C. sativa. In a laboratory screening trial in which the feeding rate of individual Limnoria quadripunctata (Holthuis 1949) was assessed by measuring faecal pellet production, feeding on heartwood of C. sativa, F. orientalis, and Q. petraea averaged less than half of that on the non-durable sapwood and heartwood of P. sylvestris. The correlation between wood density and feeding rate was weak.

Wood Fluorescence of Commercial Timbers Marketed in Mexico

A market survey conducted in Mexico yielded 579 wood specimens attributed to 92 genera belonging to 40 families. The fluorescence characteristics of these timbers and their extracts were determined. Additional tests were conducted for the presence of natural saponins and aluminium. The combustion behavior (burning splinter test) was also studied. The results obtained largely concur with information on wood fluorescence and other physical characteristics published earlier. The families Fabaceae, Anacardiaceae and Rubiaceae showed positive fluorescence for a large number of genera or species. Vochysia was the only genus with a positive reaction to the test for aluminium. The froth test for natural saponins can contribute to wood identification in specific cases. The results of the burning splinter test are unambiguous only as regards the difference between charcoal and ash; ash characteristics (consistency, color) are difficult to interpret and their successful application in wood identification considered doubtful. The use of fluorescence and other physical features can be a very useful adjunct to the classical methods of wood identification in specific cases arising from the market situation and may be applied as rapid and easy tests to verify certain identifications.

Quantitative wood anatomical characteristics in static bending strength of some commercial timbers of Nigeria

Quantitative wood anatomical characteristics in static bending strength of some commercial timbers of Nigeria

Chemical, anatomical and technological properties of Snakewood [Brosimum guianense (Aubl.) Huber

The very decorative heartwood of Brosimum guianense is internationally well known. Snakewood, as it is colloquially known, is represented in wood databases (e.g. the DELTA or InsideWood) as well as in lists of commercial timbers of many timber trading companies. The very decorative heartwood is hardly available and gains prices of up to 25 €/kg in form of half stems. In the present study, the chemical composition and especially the subcellular cell structure was analysed by means of UV microspectrophotometry to explain the high natural durability and some extraordinary physical properties in addition to the anatomical composition. The heartwood consists of approximately 39% lignin, 54% carbohydrates and 0.4% lipophilic compounds of unspecified origin. The fibres are very thick-walled. Numerous sclerotic tyloses and organic deposits are present in the vessel. The extractives in high content are also components of parenchyma cells as well as in tyloses, respectively. These detected phenolic extractives, partly of flavonoid character, are also part of the cell wall. Calcium oxalate crystals are deposited in the upright and square cells of rays and sporadically in axial parenchyma cells. These facts are reasons for the famous natural durability of Snakewood. The sapwood density ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3 for heartwood (12% mc). The compression strength (119 N/mm2), the bending strength (241 N/mm2), the modulus of elasticity (23,200 N/mm2) and the hardness (196 N/mm2) indicate exceedingly high elastomechanical properties.