Commercial Silos Research Articles

Almacenamiento de arroz: influencia en la inocuidad del grano

Rice (Oryza sativa) production ranks fifth in Uruguay’s agricultural exports. Inadequate temperature and humidity conditions increase grain respiration and favor the action of insects and fungi. This process contributes to mass grain losses and stored rice biodeterioration. The objective of this work was to evaluate paddy rice sanitary conditions during storage in commercial silos through two years. The study was carried out using the “El Paso 144” long grain variety for 8,5 and 7 months in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Main biodeterioration agents were detected and identifed. Germination capacity, microbial population and toxin content in rice extracted from the upper and lower areas of the silo were determined at differentstorage times. The microbial population decreased after storage time and in both silos sampling positions. Two mycotoxigenic genera, Fusarium sp and Aspergillus sp. were detected. Mycotoxins, Zearalenone and Ocratoxin-A were not detected, while Deoxinivalenol reached a maximum level of 120 ppb (2017). Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 were not detected. The coleopteran Sitophilus sp and Rhizopertha sp. were identifed and quantifed with a maximum incidence of 0,1%. These results demonstrate that storage conditions did not affect grain safety.

From commercial silos to commercial integration

This paper provides effective solutions for removing silos between commercial teams in order to improve in-market performance. The proposed steps are: (1) Single-sourcing the reporting commercial structure into the marketing officer or commercial officer; this consolidates the commercial responsibilities within the organisation while establishing a common set of performance metrics across the different commercial teams. (2) Shifting focus from ‘path to purchase’ to ‘path to market’; this addresses the incomplete knowledge about the path the product takes from the vendor to the customer. (3) ‘Sense–Make Sense–Respond’; this step demonstrates the need for a common construct that allows the organisation to access information quickly, understand that information, and take actions to maximise its performance in the marketplace. (4) Disrupting inertia; this final step requires the change agent to be patient with company and/or individual willingness to disrupt the inertia inherent in most mature organisations. Having awareness about what it takes to remove silos yet choosing to do nothing will only cause a company to underperform in the marketplace. Ignorance is only bliss when it is truly a lack of knowledge — but this will never lead to improvements within the organisation.

A true scale study of the maize chain with focus on free and hidden fumonisins and related fungi

The aim of this work was to study the dynamic profile of mycotoxin producing fungi as well as the accumulation of free and hidden fumonisins along the maize chain. Raw maize was sampled at harvest, at the storehouse and after drying. The study continued on the dried maize bulk along the storage period in a commercial silo, which was sampled during discharge at 6, 7, 8 and 10 months. Finally, the flour obtained after kernel milling and corresponding to the silo discharges was investigated. The sampling approach, designed in agreement with EU regulations and tested for reliability, was used along the maize chain, obtaining very good results. The prevalent fungi found in maize kernels belonged toFusarium sectionLiseola. Comparable results, in terms of both fungal incidence and fumonisin contamination, were obtained for the samples collected at harvest and at the storehouse, opening the possibility to adapt the maize chain monitoring to the needs of the farmer/enterprise. A reduction in fungal colony forming units was noticed after drying, supposedly due to the thermal treatment. Very similar amounts of free and hidden fumonisins were detected in raw maize and after drying, confirming the reliability of the sampling approach. During silo storage, up till to 10 months, a significant decrease was recorded for both free and hidden fumonisins. A significant increase in the free-to-total fumonisin ratio was observed moving from stored kernels to commercial flour, suggesting that milling leads to a reduction of the masked fraction. This result, together with the increase of free fumonisins after maize drying, should be considered in future studies. Especially the effect of drying conditions and milling treatments on the fumonisin masking phenomena should be further investigated.

Estudo comparativo de diferentes tipos de silos sobre a composição bromatológica e perfil fermentativo da silagem de milho

A commercial bunker silo and three types of experimental silos were used for determination of chemical composition and fermentation characteristics of corn silage (27.3% DM and 8.4% CP) ensiled in two different densities (400 or 600kg of silage/m3): 1) commercial bunker silo sampled at 0, 50 and 100 cm from the top; 2) plastic silo with bulsen valve; 3) plastic bag; and 4) concrete pipe. Dry matter and CP concentration showed larger variation among different levels in the commercial silos and were intermediate in the experimental ones. This indicated that water and nutrients translocation were greater in the commercial than in the experimental silos. Experimental silos well represented the commercial ones concerning cell wall, starch, water-soluble carbohydrates and IVDDM. In commercial bunker silo, pH value was low in the middle extract and higher on the top. Silage obtained from the middle extract presented greater values of NH3-N and lactic acid concentrations, while silage obtained from deep extract had higher acetic acid concentrations. Fermentation (pH, concentration of ethanol, acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic and ammoniacal N) in the experimental silos was similar to the commercial silos. Variation in fermentation in different extracts of commercial silos was greater than in different types of experimental silos

Composição bromatológica e perfil fermentativo da silagem de capim-elefante obtida em diferentes tipos de silos experimentais e no silo tipo trincheira

Três diferentes tipos de silos experimentais, confeccionados a partir de baldes plásticos, sacos plásticos e manilhas de concreto não impermeabilizadas, foram comparados com o silo comercial tipo trincheira, amostrado a 30 e 60 cm da sua superfície, para a ensilagem do capim-elefante (cv. Napier). Utilizaram-se, ainda, dois diferentes graus de compactação, correspondentes a 400 ou 600 kg de silagem/m³. O capim (33,0% de MS e 4,2% de PB) foi homogeneizado e utilizado para encher quatro silos por tratamento, distribuídos em delineamento inteiramente casualizado. Depois de abertos, estes foram amostrados, para análise da composição bromatológica e do perfil fermentativo. Silagens produzidas em manilhas de concreto não impermeabilizadas apresentaram altos valores de pH, NIDA e lignina, baixas concentrações de ácido lático e nitrogênio amoniacal, baixo poder tampão e baixa digestibilidade in vitro. Silagens produzidas em silos experimentais apresentaram qualidade superior, quanto aos parâmetros amido, carboidratos solúveis, concentração de nitrogênio amoniacal, poder tampão, ácidos acético, propiônico, butírico e lático, do que aquelas produzidas no silo comercial. Silagens obtidas dos diferentes extratos do silo comercial apresentaram maior variabilidade para os parâmetros de fermentação do que aquelas obtidas entre diferentes tipos de silos experimentais.

Effect of low-temperature storage on the bacteriological quality of raw milk

The effect of storage of raw milk from a farm bulk tank and creamery silo has been investigated during storage under three different regimes. The first storage treatment involved keeping milk under active refrigeration at 2°C i.e. deep cooling. In the second treatment, milk was stored at a constant temperature of 6°C which corresponds to normal conditions in a commercial silo. The final (intermediate temperature) treatment was an attempt to simulate the effect of chilling milk to low temperature followed by storage in an insulated silo. In this treatment, the initial temperature was 2°C and temperature was increased by 1°C every 24 h. A 48 h increase in storage life was achieved when farm bulk milk was stored at 2°C rather than 6°C. The efficacy of the intermediate temperature treatment, or of both low temperature (2°C) methods on creamery silo milk, was comparatively poorer on average. The initial count of psychrotrophic bacteria in the milk before the temperature was lowered was the critical determinant of storage life both at 2°C and 6°C. Some organisms, especially some pseudomonads, were capable of growth at all temperature regimes which were tested but members of the Enterobacteriaceae were better adapted to growth at the higher temperature. A limited number of experiments were carried out in which raw milk was first thermised (65°C for 15 s) then stored at 2°C. This combined treatment was very effective in assuring the quality of stored milk for several days.

Synergised cyfluthrin and cypermethrin as grain protectants on bulk wheat

AbstractDuplicate field trials were carried out on bulk wheat in commercial silos in Queensland and New South Wales. Laboratory bioassays on samples of treated grain at intervals over 8 or 9 months storage using malathion‐resistant strains of insects established that treatments were generally effective. Cyfluthrin (2 mg kg−1) plus piperonyl butoxide (10 mg kg−1) and cypermethrin (4 mg kg−1) plus piperonyl butoxide (10 mg kg−1) completely controlled two strains of Sitophilus oryzae L. Control of a third strain by the cypermethrin combination was incomplete after 11/2 months and neither controlled a multi‐resistant laboratory strain. Both combinations were effective against Rhyzopertha dominica F., Tribolium castaneum Herbst and Ephestia cautella Walker. No natural infestation developed in the treated grain in any silo.Mean residues of cyfluthrin and cypermethrin after 9 months storage were 58% and 52% of the calculated application rates, respectively. Compared with overall concentrations in the wheat, residue levels were higher in bran and pollard and lower in white flour. During baking, residues decreased by up to 29%. Operators experienced respiratory irritation associated with exposure to both combinations and alternative formulations would be required for use of these materials in grain storage.

A Device for Monitoring Silage Effluent Produced in Laboratory Silos

A relatively simple device was constructed and employed for monitoring production of effluent from laboratory silos. In experiments in which laboratory silos were filled (.7kg) with red clover, barley mixture (25.7% dry matter) or with alfalfa (26.0% dry matter), pressures simulated commercial silos. Significant differences in quantities of silage effluent were obtained when the same forage was subjected to different treatments designed to disrupt plant cell membranes before external pressure was applied. The device potentially is useful for investigating effects of various conditions of ensiling on effluent production during silage fermentation.

Organophosphorothioates and synergised synthetic pyrethroids as grain protectants on bulk wheat

AbstractOrganophosphorothioates and synergised synthetic pyrethroids were used in duplicate field trials carried out on bulk wheat in commercial silos in Queensland and New South Wales. Laboratory bioassays using malathion‐resistant strains of insects were carried out on samples of treated grain at intervals over 9 months. These established that all treatments were generally effective. Deltamethrin (2 mg kg−1)+ piperonyl butoxide (8 mg kg−1), fenitrothion (12 mg kg−1)+ fenvalerate (1 mg kg−1)+ piperonyl butoxide (8 mg kg−1), fenitrothion (12 mg kg−1)+ phenothrin (2 mg kg−1)+ piperonyl butoxide (8 mg kg−1) and pirimiphos‐methyl (4 mg kg−1)+ permethrin (1 mg kg−1)+ piperonyl butoxide (8 mg kg−1) controlled common field strains of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). Against a highly resistant strain of S. oryzae, deltamethrin (2 mg kg−1)+ piperonyl butoxide (8 mg kg−1) was superior to the remaining treatments. All treatment combinations completely prevented progeny production in Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), T. confusum Jacquelin du Val and in Ephestia cautella (Walker).Residues of deltamethrin, fenvalerate, permethrin and phenothrin were determined and shown to be highly persistent on stored wheat. During milling, residues accumulated in the bran fractions and were reduced in white flour. They were not significantly reduced during baking.

Fenitrothion plus (1R)‐phenothrin, and pirimiphos‐methyl plus carbaryl, as grain protectant combinations for wheat

AbstractDuplicate field trials were carried out on bulk wheat in commercial silos in Queensland and New South Wales. Laboratory bioassays on samples of treated grain at intervals over 9 months, using malathion‐resistant strains of insects, established that treatments were generally effective. Fenitrothion (12 mg kg−1)+ (1R)‐phenothrin (2 mg kg−1) was more effective than pirimiphos‐methyl (6 mg kg−1) + carbaryl (10 mg kg−1) against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Ephestia cautella (Walker); the order of effectiveness was reversed for S. granarius (L.). Against Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), T. confusum Jackquelin du Val and Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), both treatments effectively prevented the production of progeny. The order of persistence was pirimiphos‐methyl> (1R)‐phenothrin>carbaryl or fenitrothion. During processing from wheat to white bread, residues were reduced by 98% for carbaryl, >44% for (1R)‐phenothrin, 98% for fenitrothion and 85% for pirimiphosmethyl.

Chlorpyrifos‐methyl plus bioresmethrin; Methacrifos; Pirimiphos‐methyl plus bioresmethrin; and synergised bioresmethrin as grain protectants for wheat

AbstractField trials with various pesticide combinations were carried out on bulk wheat in commercial silos in Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia. Laboratory bioassays on samples of treated grain at intervals over 8 months using malathion‐susceptible and malathion‐resistant strains established the following orders of efficacy: against Sitophilus oryzae (L.), chlorpyrifos‐methyl 10 mg kg−1 + bioresmethrin 1 mg kg−1 = methacrifos 15 mg kg−1 in aerated storage > pirimiphos‐methyl 4 or 6 mg kg−1 + bioresmethrin 1 mg kg−1 = bioresmethrin 4 mg kg−1 + piperonyl butoxide 16 mg kg−1; against Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), bioresmethrin 4 mg kg−1 + piperonyl butoxide 16 mg kg−1 > methacrifos 15 mg kg−1 > chlorpyrifos‐methyl 10 mg kg−1 + bioresmethrin 1 mg kg−1 = pirimiphos‐methyl 4 or 6 mg kg−1 + bioresmethrin 1 mg kg−1. All treatments completely prevented production of progeny in Sitophilus granarius (L.), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), T. confusum Jackquelin du Val and Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.). The biological efficacy of methacrifos was greater and the rate of degradation lower in aerated than in non‐aerated storage. Residue levels of all compounds were determined chemically and were below proposed international residue levels to be considered by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

The loads exerted by grass silage on bunker silo walls

The pressures exerted on bunker silo walls by grass silage, and while tractors were being used for compacting the contents, were measured in commercial silos. Wall pressures increased with increasing mean bulk density of the silage and with artificial compaction of the grass. It was concluded that the maximum pressure on walls up to 3 m high was unlikely to exceed 4 kN m −2/m height of stack without artificial compaction and 5 kN m −2+4 kN m −2/m height of stack when the silo contents were compacted with tractors. The maximum recorded pressure due to a tractor running over the surface of the silage was equivalent to an additional point load on the wall of 5·9 kN acting at a depth of about 0·75 m below the surface.

A collaborative study of residues on wheat of chlorpyrifos‐methyl, fenitrothion, malathion, methacrifos and pirimiphos‐methyl. 1. Method development

AbstractThe accuracy and reproducibility of analytical methods for the assay of five organophosphorus grain protectants have been investigated by a coordinated test programme. Results were assessed using data from field applications of chlorpyrifos‐methyl, fenitrothion, malathion, methacrifos and pirimofos‐methyl at commercial silos in New South Wales and Queensland. A satisfactory analytical procedure is recommended following an extended series of tests.

A model of the breakdown of dichlorvos on grain

Predictive models of decay of dichlorvos residues and dichlorvos vapour concentrations were compared with breakdown observed in grain stored in six railway trucks and four commercial silos. Decay rates were adequately modelled by simple kinetic treatments and no variations in rate of decay caused by possible saturation of grain enzymes were observed. The discrepancies in various reported models for decay of dichlorvos may be due to pronounced differences in surface effects observed in commercial and laboratory applications.

An unloader for horizontal silos

An unloading mechanism capable of cutting silage from a stack was developed in 3 seasons. The cutting unit used twin contra-rotating augers, each consisting of 2 sections at 150° to each other—a horizontal cutting section which peeled off a layer of silage and an elevating section which delivered it on to an elevator. This design of bent auger is the subject of complete U.K. and foreign patents and has handled both short crop, wilted grass silage and long, high moisture content silages. An automatic bunker silo unloader incorporating the cutting unit was installed in a commercial silo and mean rates of work in excess of 8 tons/h (8280 kg/h) were recorded with maximum sustained rates of double this figure. The mean power requirement for the cutting mechanism only was 7·4 hp (5·55 kW) and the total mean load including a suitable traversing and lowering mechanism and a mobile elevator was 10·0 hp (7·46 kW).

Grass and Legume Silage Studies using 2–Quart Glass Jars as Miniature Silos1,2

Summary 1. On the basis of the results obtained in these experiments, it appears that the use of 2–quart glass jars as miniature silos offers a convenient technic for studies in silage preservation. 2. Desirable fermentation was obtained in all cases except the unwilted, untreated alfalfa silage. It should be noted that in the silages of groups B and C there was very little clover, and the crops were in full bloom. 3. The development of acidity was more rapid in the unwilted than in the wilted silages, and even after 170 days some of the wilted silages were still increasing in acidity. This characteristic was especially noticeable in the alfalfa group. 4. Using pH values as a measure of desirable fermentation, 60 lb. Of molasses and 100 lb. of hominy feed, respectively, were equally effective as preservatives under the conditions of these experiments. Silages with straw added, and that wilted plus no preservative, were well preserved and of good quality, but were somewhat inferior to those in which preservatives were used. 5. There was no destruction of carotene in any of the silages up to 30 days following ensiling, an actual increase being noted in most cases. 6. The mean sugar content of the wilted silages was 40 and 33 per cent higher than for the unwilted silages in groups B and C, respectively. 7. The crude protein content of samples analyzed 60 days after ensiling was 4.90 per cent less than that of silage 1 day old. There also was a slight loss of crude protein, attributable to wilting. 8. Analysis of variance of dry matter, nitrogen, and pH values of the various silages studied here revealed a coefficient of variation of less than 5 per cent in all cases and less than 2 per cent in some instances. This extremely low variability indicates that very accurate sampling can be accomplished by using glass jars as miniature silos. Another important advantage, of the miniature silo technic is that samples may be taken at any interval desired following the ensiling date. 9. Evidently the fermentation changes which occur in 2–quart glass jar silos are similar to those which occur in commercial silos.