Commercial-scale Implementation Research Articles

Outer Space Mining: Exploring Techno-Utopianism in a Time of Climate Crisis

Outer space holds a special place in the geographical imagination of techno-utopianism. At a time of climate crisis, the mining of celestial bodies, including asteroids, is cast as a possible “tech-driven” response to the need for “green transition” mineral resources in a context of rising geopolitical tensions and concerns over terrestrial extraction. Although still a long way from commercial-scale implementation, outer space mining no longer appears as far-fetched science fiction within the context of a booming “New Space” industry and privatization of celestial commons. Drawing from a growing body of research and critiques of responsible mineral sourcing, we explore some of the legal, political, ethical, and environmental dimensions of outer space mining, and compare them with land-based and deep-sea terrestrial mining. We then point to key areas for further geographical and social sciences enquiries into outer space extractive frontiers, including the uneven distribution of space mining wealth, the impacts on terrestrial mining communities in the Global South, and the reconceptualization of the mining enclave.

Synthetic biology for improved hydrogen production in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

SummaryHydrogen is a clean alternative to fossil fuels. It has applications for electricity generation and transportation and is used for the manufacturing of ammonia and steel. However, today, H2 is almost exclusively produced from coal and natural gas. As such, methods to produce H2 that do not use fossil fuels need to be developed and adopted. The biological manufacturing of H2 may be one promising solution as this process is clean and renewable. Hydrogen is produced biologically via enzymes called hydrogenases. There are three classes of hydrogenases namely [FeFe], [NiFe] and [Fe] hydrogenases. The [FeFe] hydrogenase HydA1 from the model unicellular algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been studied extensively and belongs to the A1 subclass of [FeFe] hydrogenases that have the highest turnover frequencies amongst hydrogenases (21,000 ± 12,000 H2 s−1 for CaHydA from Clostridium acetobutyliticum). Yet to date, limitations in C. reinhardtii H2 production pathways have hampered commercial scale implementation, in part due to O2 sensitivity of hydrogenases and competing metabolic pathways, resulting in low H2 production efficiency. Here, we describe key processes in the biogenesis of HydA1 and H2 production pathways in C. reinhardtii. We also summarize recent advancements of algal H2 production using synthetic biology and describe valuable tools such as high‐throughput screening (HTS) assays to accelerate the process of engineering algae for commercial biological H2 production.

Dynamic modeling to understand pressure response from oil production and CO2 injection in a depleted pinnacle reef reservoir: Manual calibration using simplified resolution of reservoir heterogeneity

The Midwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership has been investigating various reservoir characterization and modeling technologies as part of its commercial-scale implementation of carbon dioxide injection for geologic storage in multiple Silurian carbonate pinnacle reefs in northern Michigan, USA. This paper presents a discussion of the reservoir modeling study that was conducted for history-matching oil production and CO2 injection responses, forecasting CO2 plume migration and estimating associated storage to characterize the closed, depleted Dover-33 reef which has undergone extensive primary and secondary production. Dynamic modeling using equivalent simplified descriptions of reservoir heterogeneity were found to be numerically efficient and successfully explained the observed pressure buildup in the reef during the MRCSP CO2 injection phase. The validated history matched models are extremely useful for potential predictive modeling for considering operational optimization and evaluating subsequent production scenarios relevant to the reef.

Modeling Oil Production, CO2 Injection and Associated Storage in Depleted Oil Reservoirs: A Comparison of Approaches

The Midwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership has been investigating various reservoir characterization and modeling technologies as part of its commercial-scale implementation of carbon dioxide injection for geologic storage in multiple Silurian carbonate pinnacle reefs in northern Michigan, USA. This paper compares multiple reservoir modeling approaches for history-matching oil production and CO2 injection responses, and estimating associated storage, to characterize these small spatial footprint depleted reef reservoirs. The three approaches considered are: fully compositional simulation, black-oil with pseudo-miscibility treatment, and capacitance resistance modeling (CRM). Modeling results from three reefs illustrating each modeling approach are presented, and their applicability and limitations with respect to data needs and modeling objectives are discussed.

Boosting Membrane Hydration for High Current Densities in Membrane Electrode Assembly CO2 Electrolysis.

Despite the advantages of CO2 electrolyzers, efficiency losses due to mass and ionic transport across the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) are critical bottlenecks for commercial-scale implementation. In this study, more efficient electrolysis of CO2 was achieved by increasing cation exchange membrane (CEM) hydration via the humidification of the CO2 reactant inlet stream. A high current density of 755 mA/cm2 was reached by humidifying the reactant CO2 in a MEA electrolyzer cell featuring a CEM. The power density was reduced by up to 30% when the fully humidified reactant CO2 was introduced while operating at a current density of 575 mA/cm2. We reduced the ohmic losses of the electrolyzer by fourfold at 575 mA/cm2 by fully humidifying the reactant CO2. A semiempirical CEM water uptake model was developed and used to attribute the improved performance to 11% increases in membrane water uptake and ionic conductivity. Our CEM water uptake model showed that the increase in ohmic losses and the limitation of ionic transport were the result of significant dehydration at the central region of the CEM and the anode gas diffusion electrode-CEM interface region, which exhibited a 2.5% drop in water uptake.

Advanced post combustion CO2 capture process – A systematic approach to minimize thermal energy requirement

The high thermal energy consumption required for solvent regeneration hinders the commercial-scale implementation of the solvent based carbon dioxide capture and storage process. Process modification is an effective method to reduce the energy requirement of the process. In this study we have developed a new systematic approach to modify and reduce the energy consumption of the process by splitting the regeneration energy into different parts to calculate the magnitude of avoidable components. The process is then modified, aiming to reduce the avoidable components of the regeneration energy. The process modification approach is used to design an advanced process with lower regeneration energy.Furthermore, a more realistic approach for retrofitting projects, off-design performance analysis, is used to study the integration of conventional and advanced processes with existing power plant. The power plant is modelled on Ebsilon Professional®, while the carbon dioxide capture process is modelled on Aspen Plus®. The advanced process reduces the reaction heat by 5%, sensible heat by 6.6%, and unproductive heat by 85.4%. The advanced process decreases the total thermal energy requirement by 25.5% compared to that of the conventional process. Off-design performance analysis reveals that integration of the advanced process improves the net power output by 17 MW and reduces the efficiency penalty from 9.2% to 8.1% as compared to conventional capture process. The advanced process reduces the cost of CO2 avoided by 2.8 USD/tonCO2 at the expense of a 0.45 USD/tonCO2 increase in capital cost.

Seaweed biorefinery: A sustainable process for valorising the biomass of brown seaweed

Marine macroalgal resources are gaining importance as one of the promising feedstocks for the production of food, feed, chemicals and energy which are upwardly growing worldwide. Recent studies have convincingly demonstrated the scope and potentials of seaweeds for the production of diverse bioproducts of commercial importance. The present study demonstrates an integrated strategy for sustainable utilisation of wet brown algal biomass (Sargassum) in laboratory-scale at 1 kg batch processing yielding 541.33 ± 5.50 mL sap, 32 ± 1.5 g alginic acid, 3.8 ± 0.2 g protein concentrate and 10 ± 0.5 g cellulose. Furthermore, the effluent obtained from the process was used to produce as much as 115 ± 5 g salt. The present integrated process has several advantages over contemporary ones in terms of reduction in input chemicals, and total utilisation of feedstock with effluent management. The green matrix analysis and economic assessment suggested that the commercial-scale implementation of the process could help to reduce the energy and chemical inputs for components extraction which are the major challenges with seaweed bioprocessing.

Osiguranje dohotka u vinogradarstvu – Inovacija za upravljanje rizikom: slučaj Istarske županije

To cope with different types of risks, farmers can implement on-farm strategies and risk-sharing strategies. Risk management tools within EU Common Agricultural Policy are subsidized crop insurance, mutual funds (MF), and income stabilization tool (IST). While subsidized crop insurance is widely applied, IST and MF are not so common. Price volatility and climate change risk significantly influence farm income. Mediterranean area is especially exposed to climate change, so Istria County as part of Mediterranean is chosen for research. IST could protect against income variability, but more research and discussions are needed prior to its commercial scale implementation. Qualitative research on the small sample was applied with the goal to explore attributes that could impact the selection of IST. Paper provides an overview of IST and previous experience of IST on the EU level, on the basis of semi structured interviews, explains the perception of climate risks and IST on wine cases in Istria. The results show that all selected cases were familiar with subsidized crop insurance; however, they were not familiar with IST. After being introduced to the IST, wine producers were ready to consider its application. Lack of experiences in business linkages could be a constraint in the development of IST and challenge for policymakers.

Affinity chromatography for vaccines manufacturing: Finally ready for prime time?

Affinity chromatography is among the most powerful separation techniques, achieving the finest separation with high yields even in the most challenging feed streams. Incorporating affinity chromatography in vaccine purification has long been attempted by researchers to improve unit yield and purity with the secondary goal of reducing the number of downstream process operations. Despite the success in laboratory-scale proof of concept, implementation of this technique in pilot or cGMP manufacturing has rarely been realised due to technical and economic challenges in design and manufacturing of ideal ligands as well as availability of high-productivity chromatography media. This paper reviews evolving technologies in engineered ligands and chromatography media that are encouraging companies to re-visit the possible use of affinity chromatography in larger scale vaccine purification. It is postulated that commercial-scale implementation of high throughput single-use affinity chromatography can significantly simplify process architecture, improve productivity and flexibility, and reduce cost of goods.

Comparison of three potential methods for accelerating seabed recovery beneath salmon farms

Fish production from sea-cages is a globally significant and expanding industry, but farm production can be constrained due to localised but extreme seabed enrichment, which requires the farm to be rested for extended periods. This study compares the effectiveness of three potential techniques for accelerating seabed recovery in highly enriched sediments. Benthic changes induced by in-situ ‘harrowing’ (heavy raking of the seabed), ‘irrigation’ with oxygenated surface-water, and simulated sediment ‘removal’ are described in relation to passive recovery. Treatment effectiveness was assessed after four months based on physico-chemical and biological analyses of sediments, changes in benthic respiration in mesocosm experiments, and an assessment of the instantaneous water column effects induced during treatment. Results indicated significant sediment plumes associated with reduced dissolved oxygen levels, particularly during ‘removal’, but the magnitude and duration of the changes were negligible in an ecological effects context. Two treatments, ‘harrowing’ (HA) and ‘irrigation’ (IR), had little impact on seabed condition, particularly when compared with the natural recovery that occurred over the study period. Whereas, the ‘removal’ (RE) treatment (exposing the underlying sediment) significantly improved the physico-chemical and biological properties, and appeared to facilitate benthic recolonization. These findings suggest that, removal of degraded surface sediments has the potential to accelerate seabed recovery and can be a useful management strategy where trace metal concentrations (e.g. copper and zinc) have become unacceptably elevated. However, commercial-scale implementation would be contingent upon: i) further evaluation of water column effects associated with larger-scale treatments, and ii) the ability to safely dispose of the sediments.

Commercial heap biooxidation of refractory gold ores – Revisiting Newmont’s successful deployment at Carlin

Newmont Mining Corporation pioneered the investigation, development, and commercial-scale implementation of refractory gold whole-ore heap biooxidation, during a period spanning 1988–2009 at Carlin, Nevada. Basic and applied research and development from 1988 to 1999 included laboratory test work and increasingly larger pilot test heaps culminating in the full-scale implementation of a process that was estimated to contribute 120,000–180,000oz/year to Carlin’s production between 2000 and 2005. Key parameters that influenced performance of the on-off heap biooxidation process, and factors that led to the discontinuation of the operation are described.

Molten salt tower reboots solar thermal power [News

Solar power projects intended to turn solar heat into steam to generate electricity have struggled to compete amid tumbling prices for solar energy from solid-state photovoltaic (PV) panels. But the first commercial-scale implementation of an innovative solar thermal design could turn the tide. Engineered from the ground up to store some of its solar energy, the 110-megawatt plant is nearing completion in the Crescent Dunes near Tonopah, Nev. It aims to simultaneously produce the cheapest solar thermal power and to dispatch that power for up to 10 hours after the setting sun has idled photovoltaics.

Economic assessment of microbial biodiesel production using heterotrophic yeasts

ABSTRACTThe production of biodiesel using oleaginous microorganisms is investigated as promising alternative to produce a truly sustainable and renewable transportation fuel. While the feasibility of this approach has been shown on the laboratory scale, a commercial scale implementation is to date inhibited due to economic restraints. In order to evaluate the current cost situation and to develop suggestions to reduce production related costs, a simple cost analysis of the proposed microbial oil production process has been carried out. For closed fermentation in large-scale fermenters a break-even price of 2,350 US$ t–1 for microbial oil was calculated. In the context of a sensitivity analysis it was shown that especially alterations in capital cost can lead to overall cost reductions. Accordingly, an open pond cultivation approach was designed, cutting the cost for equipment almost in half and decreasing the break-even price to 1,723 US$ t–1. However, these reductions are only feasible when stable biomass and lipid yields can be ensured in open-pond systems, because the sensitivity analysis identified these yield parameters as leading factors influencing the break-even price. Even under very optimistic assumptions, it was not possible to reduce the break-even price below that of conventional plant oils as competitive products. Therefore, economic feasibility of the process will probably only occur if on one hand considerable technical development and efficiency improvements of the production process are made while on the other hand plant and crude oil prices are continuously increasing.

E&P Notes (June 2014)

E&P Notes ’DuPont Touts MEOR Technology’ DuPont is ramping up the commercial-scale implementation of its microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) method after nearly a decade of development and testing of what it says is a low-risk way to improve production from mature fields. Using its bioanalysis technology, DuPont has isolated microbes able to promote flow conformance through the production of a biofilm that restricts flow by reducing permeability. The company has also identified and isolated microbes that have oil-releasing (or wettability-changing) qualities to reduce residual oil adhering to the rock. Based on successful results both in the lab and in the field, the company says that its MEOR solution can increase production rates by as much as 25% at a cost of USD 10 per incremental barrel. DuPont presented the details of its laboratory tests and discussed the results of field trials at the SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium in Tulsa in April. ’Wintershall Sees EOR Promise in New Biopolymer’ After a year of field testing, a new type of biopolymer developed by Wintershall, Germany’s largest oil and gas producer, is showing promise as an effective enhanced oil recovery (EOR) tool in one of the country’s longest producing oil fields. The company presented the first-year results of its pilot project using the biopolymer in a pair of technical papers in April at the recent SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium in Tulsa. The biopolymer, Schizophyllan, is named after one of the most widespread fungi found in the forests of Germany. What is novel about Wintershall’s biopolymer is that it can survive inside high-salinity reservoirs with temperatures as high as 275°F. The triple-helix configuration of the molecular structure provides durability and high viscosity. According to the company, these tolerances are unmatched by all other commercially available polymers and will enable polymer flooding in reservoirs previously considered too harsh for such a treatment. ’Two Big Equipment Makers Working on Tougher Fracture Pumping Systems’ Pumping fracturing jobs is an equipment killer. To begin with, the job requires running enormous quantities of water and sand through a pump, which is an abrasive mix that damages pumps in ways that cannot be fixed. Adding to the pressure is the trend toward clustering wells on pad sites to allow larger, non-stop, multi-well jobs that extend run time.

Novel sustainable industrial processes: from idea to commercial scale implementation

Abstract This article summarizes the consensus on sustainable development, shows industrial cases and provides key guidelines to transfer ideas into commercial scale processes. The triple P sustainable development concept has reached global industrial consensus and has gained importance in the making of business policies and practical implementations. Obtaining a sustainable process means then that it provides a need, is socially accepted, does no environmental harm and makes a profit. Industrial cases show that this is possible. An innovative way of obtaining sustainable solutions is by industrial symbiosis, in which very different partners such as a local government, a technology provider, a water board and a chemical company co-operate with regards to a new solution; turning a waste stream into a feed stream. Open innovation is generally a good way to obtain radical novel solutions cost-effectively. Guidelines for entering open innovation projects are provided. A technology readiness level (TRL) assessment method for process innovation with academic groups is also provided. Guidelines for effective and efficient innovation from research to commercial scale implementation, based on stage-gate innovation pathway funnel, are provided. Finally, a novel method for process concept design based on essential functions and essential inputs and outputs only, is provided.

The practical implementation of microalgal biodiesel: challenges and potential solutions.

Abstract With conventional fossil energy reserves diminishing as well as atmospheric pollution increasing through excessive use of these resources, we need to switch to cleaner, renewable replacement sources of energy for a sustainable future. Bioenergy is a promising alternative among the different renewable energy sources, and microalgae in particular are of interest because of their various desirable properties. Microalgae can yield a very high lipid content, which can be processed to biodiesel. They can capture carbon dioxide and can be grown even on degraded land with waste water. Additionally, it is possible to generate a variety of products such as ethanol, biogas and pharmaceuticals from microalgae. Inspite of these promising attributes, its commercial scale implementation has been limited. Here, the major challenge is the relatively high cost associated with the entire process. Additionally, each of the processing steps exhibits several technological challenges. This paper reviews the details of each processing step to produce biodiesel from microalgae, with the emphasis on the different challenges, bottlenecks and technological barriers, as well as possible solutions to them. Various other potential uses of microalgae are also briefly discussed. The focus of this review article is on the underlying differences between theoretical and practical potential of an integrated microalgal biorefinery.

Determination of orifice diameter for horizontal pipelines in layers for composing windrows via variation of pressure losses

Compressed air plays an important role in forced aeration composting systems; the lateral outlet orifices on the main pipeline must be properly sized to maintain a pressure drop of less than 5% at the output of each orifice. Organic matter (OM) was aerated at a rate of 0.557 m3 air·d-1·kg-1, as determined by dry weight (DW), and the internal temperature and humidity of the windrows were monitored. The calculated variation of the pressure loss for the pipelines in the experimental windrow was between 1.53% and 2.56% at a maximum internal temperature of 70.8°C, unlike the conventional windrow, which reached a maximum temperature of 47.1°C. In both systems, the humidity was greater than 50%. The cost per metre for commercial scale implementation is equivalent to US$21.22, considering the use of alternative materials with the necessary mechanical and thermal resistance values.

Monitoring CO2 storage during EOR at the Weyburn-Midale Field

Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and hydrocarbons both occur as natural accumulations within the Earth and share an intertwined industrial history. Research in the 1950–1960s demonstrated that CO2 had potential as a miscible agent for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), but commercial-scale implementation of this method was limited by the availability of a large supply of inexpensive CO2 . By the mid-1980s, CO2 from large natural occurrences in the southwestern U.S. was being transported by pipeline to oil fields in the Permian Basin of Texas, which allowed deployment of CO2 flooding as a large-scale tertiary EOR method. It is estimated that tertiary oil recovery using CO2 could add as much as 13 billion barrels to existing recoverable resources in the U.S. (USDOE, 2002).

Enhanced-Oil-Recovery Pilot-Testing Best Practices

This article, written by Senior Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights of paper SPE 118055, "Enhanced- Oil-Recovery Pilot-Testing Best Practices," by G.F. Teletzke, SPE, R.C. Wattenbarger, SPE, and J.R. Wilkinson, SPE, ExxonMobil, prepared for the 2008 Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 3-6 November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) implementation is complex, and successful applications must be tailored to each reservoir. A systematic staged evaluation and development process is required to screen, evaluate, pilot test, and apply EOR processes for particular applications. Pilot testing can play a key role in this process. Before field testing, pilot objectives must be defined clearly and well spacing, pattern configuration, and injectant volumes determined. Staged Process for EOR-Project Evaluation and Development The EOR evaluation begins with screening-level-data collection, candidate-process selection, injectant-source identification, and screening economics. If favorable, EOR-project design and implementation require in-depth analysis of the most-promising processes. In addition to standard laboratory tests, specialized fluid characterization and reservoir-conditions coreflood tests with in-situ fluids and a range of injectants are performed to customize a process for each reservoir. Reservoir-characterization studies are conducted concurrently to identify key geological controls on field-scale sweep efficiency. Results from the studies then are used as input to geological and dynamic reservoir-simulation modeling of the process at various scales to evaluate options, define a preferred process design, and provide input to screening-level development and facilities planning. If anticipated rates, recoveries, and economics are favorable, pilot testing in the target field often is undertaken to resolve uncertainties and fine-tune operational and execution details. Additional laboratory, reservoir-characterization, and simulation work may be undertaken after pilot testing to resolve uncertainties further. If the technical and commercial outlook is still positive, commercial-scale implementation takes place. Stakeholder reviews are held after each stage of this process. This process is illustrated in Fig. 1 of the full-length paper. The example used in the paper is a CO2 water-alternating-gas (WAG) process. Pilot Objectives Care should be taken when developing pilot objectives to ensure that the pilot is used appropriately as part of a long-term field-development strategy. Pilot tests should field test recovery processes that have been evaluated technically and economically beforehand. Also, the recovery process to be field tested should be optimized through both laboratory and reservoir-simulation studies to maximize oil recovery at the lowest possible cost. Before field testing, the most appropriate well spacing, pattern configuration, length and orientation of wells, injectant, and injection strategy should be defined. Considerations for Pilot Design Adequate time spent on pilot design and optimization can lead to earlier full-field implementation. A poorly designed and executed pilot may lead to condemning an appropriate EOR process incorrectly or promoting an inappropriate EOR process.

Reactive distillation: The front-runner of industrial process intensification: A full review of commercial applications, research, scale-up, design and operation

Most industrial scale reactive distillations (presently more than 150), operated worldwide today at capacities of 100–3000 ktonnes/y, and are reported in this paper. Most of these plants started up less than 15 years ago. The drivers, processes, systems, scale-up methods and partner collaborations for this rapid invasion of a new process intensified technique are explained in this paper. The business drivers are (a) economical (prosperity): variable cost, capital expenditure and energy requirement reduction. In all cases these are reduced by 20% or more, when compared to the classic set-up of a reactor followed by distillation. (b) Environmental (planet): lower emissions to the environment. In all cases carbon dioxide and diffusive emissions are reduced and (c) social (people): improvements on safely, health and society impact are obtained by lower reactive content, lower run away sensitivity and lower space occupation. These industrial reactive distillation systems comprise homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysed, irreversible and reversible reactions, covering large ranges of reactions, notably hydrogenations, hydrodesulfurisation, esterifications and etherification. Various commercial methods for packing heterogeneous catalyst in columns are now available. The systems comprise amongst others: multiple catalyst systems, gas and liquid internal recycle traffic over these catalyst systems, separation, mass flow, and enthalpy exchange. These are integrated optimally in a single vessel, a characteristic feature of process intensification. The scale-up methods applied from pilot plants to commercial scale are brute force and modelling. Technology providers CDTECH and Sulzer Chemtech have used these scale-up methods successfully. Barriers perceived and real have also been removed by these companies. Chemical manufacturing companies have also developed their own specific reactive distillations by their own research and development. These companies, both on their own and in consortia, also developed heuristic process synthesis rules and expert software to identify the attractiveness and technical feasibility of reactive distillation. Heuristic rules and expert software will be presented and supported by examples. Academic research also produced design methods to identify the feasibility of reactive distillation, to determine the feed locations, to select packing types, to sequence columns optimally and also produced methods to design, optimise and control the columns with steady state and dynamic simulation models. The rapid commercial scale implementation of reactive distillation by co-operation of partners in research, scale-up, design and reliable operation can also be seen as a model for rapid implementation of other process intensification techniques in the chemical industry.