Commercial Pest Control Research Articles

Analysis of six pyrethroid insecticide metabolites in cord serum using a novel gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry method

Pyrethroid insecticides are commonly used for residential and commercial pest control in the US. Pregnant women and their fetuses are vulnerable to pesticide exposures during critical windows of neurodevelopment. Biomonitoring for exposure requires accurate and sensitive methods to assess exposures during pregnancy. The objective of this study was to develop a sensitive analytical method to measure pyrethroid metabolite concentrations in cord serum. Six pyrethroid metabolites, cis- and trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid (c/t-DCCA), trans-chrysanthemum dicarboxylic acid (t-CDCA), cis-3-(2,2-dibromovinyl)-2,2-dimethyl-cyclopropane carboxylic acid (c-DBCA), 4-fluoro-3-phenoxybenzoic acid (FPBA), and 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3PBA) were extracted from cord serum by a dichloromethane liquid-liquid extraction, derivatized by 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol carboxylic acid esterification, and then measured by gas chromatography/ion trap mass spectrometry. Limits of detection ranged from 0.02 to 0.6 ng/mL. Sixty-three cord serum samples were collected from maternal-fetal dyads in central New Jersey to test for pyrethroid metabolites. Non-specific metabolites, 3PBA, t-DCCA, and t-CDCA, were detected most frequently, present in 29%, 6.3% and 6.3% of samples, respectively. Sensitivities were comparable or greater than other published studies assessing pyrethroid metabolites in cord blood. Comparisons with other literature-reported studies emphasize the importance of method sensitivity when assessing exposures at biologically relevant concentrations.

Quality and yield of the Cucumis sativus var. Jawell crop under two pest control systems in the Sonoran desert, Mexico

Objective: To compare a commercial pest control program vs a biological pest control program in cucumber (Cucumis sativus var. Jawell) cultivation, evaluating quality and production standards.Design/methodology/approach: The study was carried out in high-tech glass greenhouses, under a cooling system with damp walls and extractors, heating by irradiation, and automated irrigation. Two treatments were evaluated: biologicalpest control in area A and a commercial control program in area B, both in Persian cucumber (Cucumis sativus) of the Jawell variety; each area of 160 m2, separately, and 41,600 plants for each area. For biological control, the mite (Amblyseiusswirskii) was released for the control of thrips; the wasp (Aphidius colemani) was released for aphid control; the mites (Phytoseiulus persimilis) and (Amblyseius californicus) for red spider control and application of the entomopathogenicnematode (Steinernema fetiae). The chemical control was in accordance with COFEPRIS (2019). The variables werefruit quality total production and incidence of pests in a completely randomized experimental design, and the t-student statistical test and Mann-Whitney test were done for the variables weight quality and loss (P?0.05). A correlation was made between the incidence of thrips (Thrips tabaci) and the incidence of biological control.Results: The biological control method was just as efficient as the chemical control method, in variables such as fruit weight, number of boxes obtained of quality cucumber, and incidence of pests and their biological control.Study limitations/implications: It is important to perform more studies under field conditions where biotic and abiotic factors are different and in other regions, in addition to testing other registered biological products.Findings/conclusions: Biological and chemical control are complementary, an integrated control would help to slowly adapt a company for a subsequent application of biological control, easing regularization and certification procedures thatinvolve the use of chemicals. A more continuous release of A. swirskii is proposed and distributed during the cultivation weeks.

Availability and Nature of Commercial Tick Control Services in Three Lyme Disease Endemic States

In an update of earlier surveys conducted in Connecticut and New Jersey in the mid-1990s, an online survey of private commercial pest control firms engaged in residential tick control showed that the application of synthetic acaricides continues to be the primary method of control used. The carbamate and organophospate acaricides, previously the most commonly used against ticks, have given way to synthetic pyrethroids and, to a lesser extent, the use of natural product/organic acaricides. Typical costs for a single acaricide application today ($100-$200 for a 1 acre [0.4 ha] property) remain similar to those reported from the earlier surveys, although the frequency of applications and, therefore, also the overall annual cost has increased. The application habitats within residential properties, life stages targeted, and application equipment used have not changed appreciably since the mid-1990s. While most survey respondents expressed knowledge of natural product acaricides and Damminix Tick Tubes, many reported that they either did not employ or knew very little about other alternative tick control methods (including entomopathogenic fungus and topical application of acaricides to tick hosts via 4-Poster deer treatment stations or Select TCS rodent bait boxes). This suggests either a failure to adequately inform the pest management industry and their potential client base of the availability of alternate methods, and/or industry concerns about cost and effectiveness of the alternatives.

Diseases of Pyrethrum in Tasmania: Challenges and Prospects for Management.

Pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip.) is a perennial plant and member of the Asteraceae that is endemic to the Dalmatian region of the former Yugoslavia (36). Pyrethrum is cultivated commercially solely for the production of six closely related esters called pyrethrins. The plant is tufted, slender, and herbaceous, growing to a height of approximately one meter (18). Leaves are alternate and pinnately lobed/narrowly lanceolate to oblong lanceolate. The daisy-like flowers are produced at the termini of stems and consist of a cluster of 40 to 100 bisexual, yellow disk florets encircled by a ring of 18 to 22 pistillate white ray florets atop a moderately convex to subglobose receptacle (Fig. 1; 100). Disk and ray florets both possess 3 to 10 ribbed achenes located between the floret and receptacle. Involucres generally range between 12 and 18 mm in diameter (17,18). Approximately 94% of the pyrethrins are produced within secretory ducts and oil glands of the achenes of the mature pyrethrum flower, with a minor percentage of oil glands and secretory ducts also found in leaves, stems, and roots (99). Pyrethrins can be separated into two groups of three ester compounds: pyrethrins I and II. The pyrethrin I fraction contains chrysanthemic acid products, including pyrethrin I, cinerin I, and jasmolin I. The pyrethrin II fraction is derived from pyrethric acid and made up of pyrethrin II, cinerin II, and jasmolin II (19,27). Compounds within both fractions contain insecticidal properties used in household and commercial pest control products. These compounds are referred to as “knockdown” and kill agents for many arthropods, yet are of low toxicity to mammals. Pyrethrins also have the advantage over other synthetic insecticides of being rapidly broken down upon exposure to light and air, are metabolized quickly, and can be used in the production of organic farm products. Thus, natural pyrethrins are generally considered to be nonpolluting (19,27). The major areas of pyrethrum production worldwide are located in East Africa (Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania), Tasmania (Australia), China, and Papua New Guinea (85,94). Production of pyrethrum in Kenya began in 1928, and despite some fluctuations in annual supply, Kenya is still one of the major suppliers to the world’s market. Pyrethrum cultivation in Kenya is centered in four production areas: the northern and southern Rift Valleys, Mount Kenya, and near Lake Victoria (94). Tasmania is the other major world producer and grows approximately 2,000 hectares. In Tasmania, pyrethrum is grown predominantly along the northwest coast of the island, between Deloraine (41° 31′ S; 146° 39′ E) and Table Cape (40° 56′ S; 145° 43′ E). The cultivation of pyrethrum differs markedly between Tasmania and the other production areas of the world. For example, in 2001 approximately 200,000 growers were involved in pyrethrum production

Residue Formations of Phosphorus Hydride Polymers and Phosphorus Oxyacids during Phosphine Gas Fumigations of Stored Products

With the extent of international usage and the critical role phosphine gas (PH3) plays in commercial pest control, identification of the residual components deposited during fumigation is mandatory. It has been postulated that these infrequent residues are primarily composed of phosphoric acid or reduced forms of phosphoric acid [hypophosphorous acid (H3PO2) and phosphorous acid (H3PO3)], due to the oxidative degradation of phosphine. Using environmental scanning electron microscopy, gas phase Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, the structural elucidation and formation mechanism of the yellow amorphous polyhydric phosphorus polymers (P(x)H(y)) that occur in addition to the lower oxyacids of phosphorus in residues deposited during PH3 fumigations of select tobacco commodities are explored. This research determined that nitric oxide gas (or nitrogen dioxide) initiates residue formation of phosphorus hydride polymers and phosphorus oxyacids during PH3 fumigations of stored products.

Use and toxicity of pyrethroid pesticides in the Central Valley, California, USA

The use of pyrethroid insecticides is increasing for agriculture, commercial pest control, and residential consumer use. In addition, there is a trend toward the use of newer and more potent compounds. Little is known about the toxicity of sediment-associated pyrethroid residues to aquatic organisms, yet recent work has shown they commonly are found in aquatic sediments in the heavily agricultural Central Valley of California, USA. Minimal data exist on the sensitivity of standard sediment toxicity testing species to pyrethroids, despite two or more decades of agricultural use of these compounds. Sediment concentrations causing acute toxicity and growth impairment to the amphipod Hyalella azteca were determined for six pyrethroids in three sediments, ranging from 1.1 to 6.5% organic carbon (OC). In order of decreasing toxicity of sediment-associated residues, the compounds tested were bifenthrin (average 10-d median lethal concentration [LC50] = 0.18 microg/g OC), lambda-cyhalothrin (0.45 microg/g OC), deltamethrin (0.79 microg/g OC), esfenvalerate (0.89 microg/g OC), cyfluthrin (1.08 microg/g OC), and permethrin (4.87 microg/g OC). In a sediment containing about 1% OC, most pyrethroids, except permethrin, would be acutely toxic to H. azteca at concentrations of 2 to 10 ng/g dry weight, a concentration only slightly above current analytical detection limits. Growth typically was inhibited at concentrations below the LC50; animal biomass on average was 38% below controls when exposed to pyrethroid concentrations roughly one-third to one-half the LC50. Survival data are consistent with current theory that exposure occurs primarily via the interstitial water rather than the particulate phase. A reanalysis of previously reported field data using these toxicity data confirms that the compounds are exceeding concentrations acutely toxic to sensitive species in many agriculture-dominated water bodies.

Evaluation of factors influencing augmentative releases of Chrysoperla carnea for control of Scirtothrips perseae in California avocado orchards

Weekly releases of Chrysoperla carnea for control of Scirtothrips perseae were evaluated in replicated field plots in two commercial avocado orchards in southern California, USA. Two release techniques and rates commonly employed by commercial pest control advisors who routinely use this generalist predator for S. perseae control were assessed. Release technique one utilized C. carnea eggs glued to paper squares that were stapled to leaves of experimental trees at a rate of 41,000 eggs per ha. Release technique two used a motorized backpack sprayer to apply a dry mixture of lacewing eggs and larvae to trees at a rate of 514,501 per ha. Pest populations were monitored by making bi-weekly population counts of S. perseae larvae and adults on leaves, and adult densities were simultaneously monitored in each experimental plot with yellow sticky cards. In the laboratory, degree-day accumulation until death of immature C. carnea was determined at temperatures representative of field conditions when predators were provisioned with varying amounts of food or different food types. Preference for S. perseae instars by first, second, and third instar C. carnea was assessed in the laboratory, and intraguild predation towards larvae and adult females of a co-occurring generalist predatory thrips, Franklinothrips orizabensis , was investigated along with intraspecific predation rates. Both release strategies failed to significantly reduce S. perseae populations in comparison to non-treated control plots. Approximately 35–96% of C. carnea eggs and larvae applied with the motorized sprayer landed on the ground. C. carnea larvae lived for approximately 1–2 days when provisioned with either no food, an avocado leaf or avocado pollen. Longevity was extended to 14–15 days when prey was provided. C. carnea larvae showed no preference for first or second instar S. perseae , all predator instars attacked first instar F. orizabensis , but only second and third instar C. carnea managed attacks on second instar F. orizabensis larvae. No adult female F. orizabensis were attacked and no attacks by F. orizabensis on C. carnea were recorded. Second instar C. carnea engaged in the highest levels of intraspecific predation.

Efficacy of fiber bands impregnated with Beauveria brongniartii cultures against the Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Abstract Use of 50 × 500 mm non-woven fiber bands impregnated with cultures of entomopathogenic fungi was investigated for control of Anoplophora glabripennis. Fungal bands produced as a commercial pest control product and obtained from industry contained Beauveria brongniartii NBL 851 while lab-produced bands contained B. brongniartii WU 20 or Metarhizium anisopliae VD 1. In the laboratory, adult longevity decreased when adult A. glabripennis were forced to walk for 5 s on bands impregnated with B. brongniartii NBL 851 and for 25 s on B. brongniartii WU 20 and M. anisopliae VD 1 bands. A field experiment was conducted over a 31-day period in Huaiyuan, Anhui, China, by attaching bands impregnated with B. brongniartii NBL 851 or WU 20 around the trunks of willows (Salix sp.) at two sites infested with A. glabripennis. Treatments were compared directly, by monitoring adult longevity, and indirectly, by counting oviposition scars and exit holes per tree to quantify relative oviposition per female. Adults collected from trees treated with B. brongniartii WU 20 died more quickly than adults from the trees treated with B. brongniartii NBL 851 or controls. At the site with higher A. glabripennis population densities, relative oviposition per female was significantly lower for both fungal treatments compared with the control treatment. Between fungal treatments, B. brongniartii NBL 851 had a 5 day earlier negative effect on oviposition per female than B. brongniartii WU 20.

Insecticide residues in the ambient air of commercial pest control buildings, 1993.

Insecticide residues in the ambient air of commercial pest control buildings, 1993.

Distribution of sub-slab injected Dursban TC (chlorpyrifos) in a loamy sand soil when used for subterranean termite control.

Creation of continuous soil insecticide barriers is a common method of protecting existing structure from subterranean termite infestations. Previously registered termiticides (aldrin, benzene hexachloride, chlordane, dieldrin and heptachlor) have provided insecticidal activity in the soil for more than 20 years (Johnston et al. 1971; Mauldin et al. 1987). Due to human health and environmental concerns, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has canceled these termiticides. Of the currently registered active ingredients (AI) labeled for controlling subterranean termites, chlorpyrifos (Dursban | TC) has been the most widely used by commercial pest control operators (PCO's) (Mix 1988).

Multi-Route Exposure Assessment and Biological Monitoring of Urban Pesticide Applicators during Structural Control Treatments with Chlorpyrifos

A preliminary study of dermal and respiratory exposure to chlorpyrifos (Dursban TC) during structural treatments was conducted with eight workers from a commercial pest control company. The compound was applied by sub-slab and soil injection to four houses, with each application involving two workers. Crawl space applications were included in three of the jobs. Field sampling extended over the entire workday, and included personal air samples and dermal exposure evaluation with patches and handwashes. A fluorescent tracer was added to the formulation for qualitative determination of skin deposition patterns. Pre-exposure and complete 72 hour urine samples were also collected. Total dermal exposure averaged 5.94 mg/hr. The major contributors were the upper legs (38%) and the forearms (34%). Accidents occurred during two of the four applications observed, and the two workers involved in the accidents were the most highly exposed individuals. The mean estimated absorbed daily dose was 9.5 ug/kg/day, with approximately 73% contributed by the dermal route. Thus, under these work conditions the Threshold Limit Value is not an appropriate guide for worker safety. The principal urinary metabolite of chlorpyrifos, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, was found in measurable quantities in all urine samples. Urinary metabolite levels collected 24-48 hr postexposure were highly correlated (R2 = 0.86) with total absorbed dose estimates. The high variability among individual excretion patterns suggests against the use of urine spot sampling, but longer collections may prove useful in the development of a Biological Exposure Index for chlorpyrifos.

A sampling method to determine insecticide residues on surfaces and its application to food-handling establishments

Known amounts of acephate, chlorpyrifos, and diazinon were applied to Formica, unfinished plywood, stainless steel, and vinyl tile. Cotton-ball and dental wick materials were dipped in 2-propanol and "swiped" over the treated surface area two time. More acephate was found on the second swipe compared to the first from vinyl tile, similar amounts on both swipes from plywood, and less on the second swipe from formica and stainless steel. The ratio of chlorpyrifos on Swipe 1 compared to Swipe 2 found with cotton-ball on both formica and stainless steel surfaces was equivalent (6:1), but a considerable difference was seen when two dental wick swipes were used. Residues of diazinon removed from formica and stainless steel were equivalent, regardless of the swiping material used. Residues of chlorpyrifos were detected by taking swipes of surfaces in two restaurants and a supermarket up to 6 mo after a prescribed application by a commercial pest control firm. The data show that measurable amounts of chloropyrifos can be detected on surfaces not treated with the insecticide for at least 6 mo.

Health and environmental effects profile for pentachloronitrobenzene.

Pure pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) is a colorless crystalline solid (Worthing, 1983). The commercial product may have a light-yellow to cream color with a musty odor (Hartley and Kidd, 1983). It is practically insoluble in a number of organic solvents. The compound is reasonably stable but may undergo hydrolysis in a strong alkaline medium (Hartley and Kidd, 1983). In 1983, Olin Corp., Leland, MS, was the only manufacturer of PCNB in the United States (SRI, 1984; Hartley and Kidd, 1983). No data for U.S. production volume for this chemical are available, but recent production source data (USITC, 1985; SRI, 1985) suggest that this chemical is no longer commercially produced in the United States. The primary usage of PCNB is as a soil fungicide for a wide variety of crops and in seed treatment (Worthing, 1983; Hartley and Kidd, 1983). The fate of PCNB in water has not been comprehensively studied. Only qualitative data regarding fate and transport in water are available. The half-life of PCNB in the water phase was estimated to be 1.8 days. The two processes reported to be most responsible for the rapid decrease in PCNB concentration in water were volatilization and sorption to seston and biota, followed by sedimentation as detritus (Schauerte et al., 1982). Neither biodegradation nor photolysis appears to be a significant process for the loss of PCNB from water (Crosby and Hamadmad, 1971; Schauerte et al., 1982). The BCFs for PCNB in the golden orfe, Leucisens idus melanotus, and in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, were reported to be 950-1130 and 260-590, respectively (Korte et al., 1978; Oliver and Niimi, 1985). It therefore appears that PCNB will moderately bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. Pertinent data regarding the fate and transport of PCNB in air could not be located in the available literature as cited in the Appendix. Based on its physical properties and its behavior in other media, it would appear that PCNB will persist in the atmosphere because no known chemical/photochemical processes significantly degrade this chemical. Precipitation of particulate PCNB, especially of larger particle size and higher particle density, may remove some PCNB from the atmosphere. PCNB is persistent in soils. The two processes that are important in the loss of PCNB from soils are volatilization and biodegradation; biodegradation is more rapid in soils under anaerobic conditions than under aerobic conditions (Ko and Farley, 1969; Casley, 1968; Gile and Gillett, 1979; Cole and Metcalf, 1977).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

THE MERCHANT GRAIN BEETLE, ORYZAEPHILUS MERCATOR (SILVANIDAE: COLEOPTERA), AS A HOUSEHOLD PEST IN CANADA

AbstractA 34-question interview relating to the occurrence, distribution, and economic importance of the merchant grain beetle was administered to a random sample of 2341 dwellings in Winnipeg in 1971 and 1152 dwellings in 1980. The results showed that a higher percentage of apartments and other multiple dwellings were infested by this insect than were houses. Using the Winnipeg survey figure, we estimate that the total cost of infestation in Canadian residences was $2.9 million in 1971 and $6 million in 1980. These figures do not include the costs of commercial pest control services. Oatmeal and flour were infested most frequently in 1971 with mixed cereal most frequent in 1980. After food, the next most frequent sources of beetles in kitchens were cupboard shelves and breadboards. Most people who found beetles in a food product discarded the infested product and adjacent foods whether or not they were infested. The results of the surveys suggest that the merchant grain beetle is a widespread and economically important household pest in Canada, particularly in apartments where is it a chronic problem.

Three Methods for Sampling Arthropod Numbers on California Cotton

Three collection methods were compared as measures of pest and beneficial arthropod numbers in cotton: a visual examination of plants, a modified berlese-funnel method, and whole-plant collection in cloth bags. Numbers of arthropods collected by the three methods were compared, with developmental stages separated where possible. No significant differences in the numbers collected by the three methods were detected when arthropod populations were at low densities. No single method was most effective for estimating all life stages of two or more particular arthropod species. A combination of the bag and berlese-funnel methods provided a better estimate for some arthropod populations than the use of bags alone. Some of these methods are suitable for research purposes, but none are feasible for use by commercial pest control advisors.

A Contribution to the History of Commercial Pest Control

A Contribution to the History of Commercial Pest Control